School of Engineering/ EEE Department

Class:
Year 1 MEE in: Energy, Production and Plant Engineering

ETE 1262: Basics of Electronics and Electrical Engineering

Contacts

Names: TUYISHIME Silas

Email: [email protected]
Tel: 0788552792

12/02/2024 1
 Unit 6: Logic gates and Boolean expression
 Logic gates are electronic circuits (devices) that can be used to implement the most
elementary logic expressions, also known as Boolean expressions
 The logic gate is the most basic building block of combinational logic.
 They perform basic logical functions that are fundamental to digital circuits
 These gates take one or more binary inputs (0 or 1) and produce a single binary output
based on the logic of the gate.
 In a circuit, logic gates will make decisions based on a combination of digital signals
coming from its inputs.
 Logic gates are electronic circuits and it will respond only to HIGH voltages (called 1s)
or LOW (ground) voltages (called 0s).
 There are three basic logic gates, namely the OR gate, the AND gate and the NOT gate.
 Other logic gates that are derived from these basic gates are the NAND, NOR, XOR, and
XNOR.

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 Boolean algebra
 Boolean algebra is a branch of algebra in which the values of the variables are
only true or false, typically denoted as 1 or 0, respectively and operations are
based on logic gates.
 It deals with operations and rules for manipulating these values.
 This algebraic system is fundamental in digital electronics and computer science
for representing and manipulating binary logic.

AND gate operations

 In Boolean algebra the AND operation is similar to multiplication in ordinary
algebra and performs the logical multiplications

AND-gate symbol The truth table of AND operation

• It has two input terminals A, B where, the digital signals are applied and the
output is obtained at the output terminal Y.
• Mathematically the AND operation can be written as Y= A.B=AB
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• The output Y is TRUE only if both the inputs are TRUE otherwise it is false.
 3-input AND gate
 Input variables are A , B , and C. The output is shown as Y.
 Note that only when all inputs are 1 is the output of the AND gate enabled with a
1.

3-input AND gate symbol

 In each truth table the unique output from the AND

gate is a HIGH only when all inputs are HIGH. (c) Truth table with 3 variables
Boolean expression for a 4-input AND gate

Solution: A . B . C .D = Y or ABCD=Y

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 OR operations
• The OR operation in Boolean algebra is similar to addition in ordinary algebra and
performs the digital addition.

OR-gate symbol The truth table of the OR gate

 It is defined as the output of an OR gate is FALSE only if, both the inputs are
FALSE otherwise it is true.
 The OR gate is called the “any or all” gate.
 Boolean expression for this OR function is given as Y = A OR B = A + B

The Boolean expression for a 3-input OR gate

 The expression reads A OR B OR C equals output Y

 Y.= A + B + C

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 NOT operations

The NOT operation in Boolean algebra is also defined as complementation or inversion i.e.
negation as performed by the NOT gate.
This operation converts the logical 1 to logical 0 and vice versa. The symbol used for this
operation is a bar or prime over the function or the variable. i.e.
Its logical equation is

Symbol of NOT- gate The truth table of NOT gate

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 6.4.NAND operations
 The NAND operation in Boolean algebra is equivalent to AND operation and
NOT operations.
 The complement of AND function is called NAND function.
 The graphical symbol of NAND gate comprised of a AND gate followed by a
small circle as NOT gate
 The output of NAND gate is FALSE if both A and B are TRUE, otherwise it is
TRUE
 The output of the NAND gate can be represented as :

symbol of NAND gate The truth table of the NAND gate

 6.5 NOR operation
 The NOT – OR operation is known as NOR operation or it is the
complement of OR function.
 The output of the NOR gate is TRUE only if both A and B are FALSE
otherwise it is FALSE.
 Mathematically it can be described as:

symbol of the NOR gate The Truth Table

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 Exclusive-OR Gate (XOR)
Is a digital logic gate with two or more inputs and one output that performs
exclusive disjunction.
The output of an XOR gate is true only when exactly one of its inputs is true.
If both of an XOR gate's inputs are false, or if both of its inputs are true, then the
output of the XOR gate is false.
Mathematically it can be described as:

Symbol of XOR gate

Summary of basic logic gates

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 Exclusive-NOR Gate (XOR)
 The Exclusive-NOR (XNOR) gate is a logic gate that outputs true
(1) only when both of its inputs are the same. If the inputs are
different, it outputs false (0). The XNOR gate is essentially the
inverse of the XOR gate.
 Mathematically it can be described as:

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From the basic operations, the truth table of the complex
expression can be built.
Example : a) b) c)

Answer : c)
a) b)

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 6.6. Boolean algebra, Boolean minimization
Boolean Algebra is the mathematics used to analyze digital
gates and circuits.
The Laws of Boolean can use to both reduce and simplify a
complex Boolean expression in an attempt to reduce the number
of logic gates required.
 Boolean algebra is governed by certain rules and laws. These
rules can be used for the minimization of logical operations.
It is the convenient and systematic method of expressing and
analyzing the operation of digital circuits.
The Axioms or postulates of Boolean algebra are a set of
logical expressions that we accept without proof and upon which
we can build a set of useful theorems.

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 Description of the Laws and properties of Boolean Algebra
Annulment Law – A term AND´ed with a “0” equals 0 or OR´ed with a “1”
will equal 1
– A . 0 = 0 The variable AND’ed with 0 is always equal to 0
– A + 1 = 1 The variable OR’ed with 1 is always equal to 1

 Identity Law – A term OR´ed with a “0” or AND´ed with a “1” will
always equal that term
– A + 0 = A The variable OR’ed with 0 is always equal to the variable
– A . 1 = A The variable AND’ed with 1 is always equal to the variable

 Idempotent Law – An input that is AND´ed or OR´ed with itself is equal

to that input
– A + A = A The variable OR’ed with itself is always equal to the variable
– A . A = A The variable AND’ed with itself is always equal to the
variable
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• De Morgan’s theorem can be proved for any number of variables. The prove by
induction method is as follows:
Truth table

• From the above table it is clear that the columns 7 & 8 are equal.

Therefore,

• Similarly, Columns 9 & 10 are equal.

Therefore,

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• Implementation of gates using NAND gate

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• Implementation of gates using NOR gate

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 Distributive Law – This law permits the multiplying or factoring out
of an expression.
– A(B + C) = A.B + A.C (OR Distributive Law)
– A + (B.C) = (A + B).(A + C) (AND Distributive Law)

 Absorptive Law – This law enables a reduction in a complicated

expression to a simpler one by absorbing like terms.
– A + (A.B) = A (OR Absorption Law)
– A(A + B) = A (AND Absorption Law)

 Associative Law – This law allows the removal of brackets from an

expression and regrouping of the variables.
– A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C = A + B + C (OR Associate Law)
– A(B.C) = (A.B)C = A . B . C (AND Associate Law)

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Example 1 Using the above laws, simplify the following expression:
M= (A + B)(A + C)
M=
(A + B).(A + C)

A.A + A.C + A.B + B.C – Distributive law

A + A.C + A.B + B.C – Idempotent AND law (A.A = A)

A(1 + C) + A.B + B.C – Distributive law

A.1 + A.B + B.C – Identity OR law (1 + C = 1)

A(1 + B) + B.C – Distributive law
A.1 + B.C – Identity OR law (1 + B = 1)

M= A + (B.C) – Identity AND law (A.1 = A)

Then the expression: (A + B)(A + C) can be simplified to A + (B.C) as in the
Distributive law. a)
Example 2:
b)

c)
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Example 2 NAND Implementation

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 Formulation and Design of Simple Logic Circuits
Two simple methods for designing simple digital circuit are found in standard form of
Boolean expression called the Sum-Of-Products (or SOP) form and Product-Of-Sums
(or POS) forms.

a. Sum of products (SOP)

• The logical sum of two or more logical product terms is called a sum of products
expression.
• The AND function (.) is referred to as a product and the OR function (+ sign) is
referred to as a sum.
• The variables in a sum & product term can either appear in complemented or
uncomplemented form.
• The sum of product expression is basically an OR operation of AND operated variables.

Example :

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• Product terms that include all of the input variables (or their
inverses) are called minterms.
• For minterms, the binary numbers are formed by
representing each non complemented variable by 1 and the
complemented variable by 0.
• A sum-of-products expression is formed from a product of
all the input variables (or their inverses) for each row of
the truth table for which the result is logic 1.
• The output is the logical “sum” of these minterms

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 b. Product of sums (POS)
POS Boolean expressions can be generated from truth tables
by determining which rows of the table have an output of 0,
writing one sum term for each row, and finally multiplying all
the sum terms. This creates a Boolean expression representing
the truth table as a whole.
These “sum” terms that include all of the input variables
(or their inverses) are called maxterms.
For maxterms, the non-complemented variables are taken as
0’s and the complemented variables are taken as 1’s.
For POS expression, the output variable is the logical product
of maxterms.

Example:

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The following table shows a 3-variable logical function with
the eight minterms & maxterms and their symbolic
designation.

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 Canonical SOP or POS expression
A Boolean functions expressed as a sum of minterms or a product maxterms, are said to be in
canonical form.
Example:

i. Write a Minterm Boolean expression ii. Write a maxterm Boolean

for the truth table In another notation expression for the truth table
for the above function

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 Boolean minimization
 A Karnaugh map or a K-map refers to a pictorial method that is utilized to minimise
various Boolean expressions without using the Boolean algebra theorems along with
the equation manipulations. A Karnaugh map can be a special version of the truth
table.
 The Karnaugh map provides a simple and straight-forward method of minimizing
Boolean expressions.
 Cells number of table are formed based on this formula:
where n is a number of variables.
Examples :
i. 2 input variables

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 Boolean minimization
 A Karnaugh map for 3 and 4 variables

Examples :
ii. 3 input variables:

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 Boolean minimization
 A Karnaugh map for 3 and 4 variables

Examples :
ii. 4 input variables:

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  Steps to solve expression using K-map-

1. Select K-map according to the number of variables.

2. Identify minterms or maxterms as given in problem.
3. For SOP put 1’s in blocks of K-map respective to the
minterms (0’s elsewhere).
4. For POS put 0’s in blocks of K-map respective to the
maxterms(1’s elsewhere).
5. Make rectangular groups containing total terms in power of
two like 1,2,4,8 and try to cover as many elements as you
can in one group.
6. From the groups made in step 5 find the product terms and
sum them up for SOP form.

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31
SOP FORM: K-map of 3 variables- Z= ∑A,B,C(1,3,6,7)

From red group we get product term— A’C

From green group we get product term— AB
Summing these product terms we get- Final
expression (A’C+AB) 32
 POS FORM K-map of 3 variables- F(A,B,C)=π(0,3,6,7)

 From red group we find terms A B C’ ; Taking complement of

these variables A’ B’ C Now sum up them (A’ + B’ + C)
 From green group we find terms B C , Taking complement of
these variables terms B’ C’ ; Now sum up them (B’+C’)
 From brown group we find terms A’ B’ C’ ; Taking complement of
these variables A B C ; Now sum up them (A + B + C)
 We will take product of these three terms : Final expression (A’ + B’
+ C) (B’ + C’) (A + B + C) 33
 Conversion from the Boolean expression to logic circuits
The method of conversion from a logic circuit to a Boolean
expression and vice versa
is given below.
To convert a logic circuit into Boolean expression, the steps are:
i) First label all the input signals
ii) Write down the output of each logic gate connecting to these
input signals in terms of Boolean expressions
iii) Continue this process until the output is reached.

Example 1: Write the

Boolean expression for
the logic diagram given
below.

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 • In this diagram,
there are three input
signals A, B & C
which is fed to three
AND gates.

• The output of the three AND gates can be labeled as AB, BC

& AB.
• These three outputs AB, BC &AB are fed to the OR gates
with the inputs A, B, C respectively.
• So the output of the three OR gate can be labeled as
A + AB, B + BC, C + AB.

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Solution • Then the output of these three
gates are given to the input of
an OR gate.
• So the output of that OR gate
can be written as:
( A+AB) + (B+BC) + (C+AB),
which is the output of the given
combinational circuit.
Example2
a)
b)

NAND
NOT

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Conversion from the Boolean expression to logic circuits
To convert a Boolean expression to logic circuit, first start with
the output and work towards input.
Step I : Draw the logic diagram corresponding to the given
Boolean expression .
Step II: Draw the logic diagram of each element of the given
expression.
Step III: Determine the number of input signals in the expression.
Step IV: Draw the complete logic circuit of the given Boolean
expression.

Example : Design the logic diagram for the following Boolean

expression given :
Solution: The given Boolean
expression is the output of an OR
gate. So according to the steps
explained above, draw the OR gate
with two inputs

According to step ii, draw the

logic diagram of each element
(BC, BC) of the given
expression.

According to step iii, B & C

must be the output of an
inverter, whose inputs are B
&C respectively. i.e.

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  Combinational Logic circuits
• Combinational logic is about combining logic gates together to
process two or more signals in order to produce output signal (s)
according to the logical function of each logic gate.
• In a Combinational Logic Circuit, the output is dependent at all
times on the combination of its inputs.

• Common combinational circuits made up from individual logic

gates include : Encoders , Decoders, Full and Half Adders,
Multiplexers, De-multiplexers.
Combinational logic has many uses in electronic systems.
• It is used to carry out the essential arithmetic, not only in computers and
calculators, but also in navigation systems, robots and many other types
of automatic machinery.
The three main ways of specifying the function of a
combinational logic circuit are:
1. Boolean Algebra – This forms the algebraic expression
showing the operation of the logic circuit for each input
variable either True or False that results in a logic output.
2. Truth Table – A truth table defines the function of a logic
gate by providing a concise list that shows all the output states
in tabular form for each possible combination of input variable
that the gate could encounter.
3. Logic Diagram – This is a graphical representation of a
logic circuit that shows the wiring and connections of each
individual logic gate, represented by a specific graphical
symbol, that implements the logic circuit.

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All three of these logic circuit representations are shown below :

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  Half Adder
An adder is a digital circuit that performs addition of numbers. The half
adder adds two binary digits called as augend and addend and produces
two outputs as sum and carry; XOR is applied to both inputs to produce
sum and AND gate is applied to both inputs to produce carry out.
Truth Table
Block diagram Circuit Diagram

Looking at the sum (∑) output column of the

truth table ,note that it takes an XOR function 42
to produce the ∑ output. The carry-out
column will use an AND function.
It is used in Calculators, computers, digital measuring devices etc
  Full Adder
• Full adder is developed to overcome the drawback of Half Adder
circuit.
• It can add two one-bit numbers A and B, and carry c.
• The full adder is a three input and two output combinational
circuit. Circuit Diagram
Truth Table
Block diagram

It is used in Multiple bit addition, digital processors etc.

  Encoder
Encoder is a combinational circuit which is designed to
perform the inverse operation of the decoder.
It has n number of input lines and m number of output lines.
An encoder produces an m bit binary code corresponding to
the digital input number.
The encoder accepts an n input digital word and
converts it into an m bit another digital word.
8-to-3 Bit Priority Encoder
Block diagram 4-to-2 Bit Binary Encoder

Encoder Applications refer to this website

https://www.encoder.com/encoder-applications
Applications of priority encoder
• Priority encoders are used extensively in digital and
computer systems as microprocessor interrupt controllers
where they detect the highest priority input.
• Priority encoders can be used to reduce the number of wires
needed in a particular circuits or application that have
multiple inputs

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  Decoder
Decoding –is the conversion of an n-bit input code to an m-
bit output code with
such that each valid code word produces a unique output
code. The circuits that perform decoding are called
decoders.
It performs operations which are exactly opposite to those of
an encoder.
The decoder is a circuit used to change the code into a set
of signals
Block diagram

Examples of Decoders
• Code converters
• Relay actuator

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 Example : 2 to 4 Line Decoder
• The block diagram of 2 to 4 line decoder is shown in the
following fig. A and B are the two inputs where D through D
are the four outputs.

Block diagram

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  Multiplexers
• Multiplexer is a special type of
combinational circuit. There are n-data
inputs, one output and m select inputs with
2m = n.
• It is a digital circuit which selects one of
the n data inputs and routes it to the
output
• Depending on the digital code applied at the selected inputs,
one out of n data sources is selected and transmitted to the
single output Y.
• E is called the strobe or enable input which is useful for the
cascading. It is generally an active low terminal that means it
will perform the required operation when it is low.

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 Block diagram
Multiplexers Block Diagram
come in multiple
variations

The main function of the multiplexer is that it combines input

signals, allows data compression, and shares a single
transmission channel.
 Applications of Multiplexers
Multiplexers are used in various applications wherein multiple-data need to be
transmitted by using single line.
i. Communication System
A communication system has both a communication network and a transmission
system. By using a multiplexer, the efficiency of the communication system can
be increased by allowing the transmission of data, such as audio and video data
from different channels through single lines or cables.
ii. Computer Memory
Multiplexers are used in computer memory to maintain a huge amount of
memory in the computers, and also to reduce the number of copper lines
required to connect the memory to other parts of the computer.
iii. Telephone Network
In telephone networks, multiple audio signals are integrated on a single line of
transmission with the help of a multiplexer.
iv. Transmission from the Computer System of a Satellite
Multiplexer is used to transmit the data signals from the computer system of a
spacecraft or a satellite to the ground system by using a GSM
(Global System for Mobile communications) satellite .etc
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  Demultiplexers
• A demultiplexer performs the reverse operation of a multiplexer
i.e.
 it receives one input and distributes it over several outputs.
 It has only one input, n outputs, m select input.
 At a time only one output line is selected by the select lines and
the input is transmitted to the selected output line.
• A de-multiplexer is equivalent to a single pole multiple way
switch.
Demultiplexers comes
in multiple variations Block diagram

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 Applications of De multiplexer
De multiplexers are used to connect a single source to multiple destinations.
These applications include the following:
i. Communication System
Mux and demux both are used in communication system to carry out the
process of data transmission. A De-multiplexer receives the output signals
from the multiplexer and at the receiver end it converts them back to the
original form.
ii. Arithmetic Logic Unit
The output of the ALU is fed as an input to the De-multiplexer, and the
output of the demultiplexer is connected to a multiple register. The output of
the ALU can be stored in multiple registers.
iii. Serial to Parallel Converter
This converter is used to reconstruct parallel data. In this technique, serial
data is given as an input to the De-multiplexer at a regular interval, and a
counter is attached to the demultiplexer at the control input to detect the data
signal at the output of the demultiplexer. When all data signals are stored, the
output of the demux can be read out in parallel.
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  Flip-flop
• The flip-flop is the basic unit of digital memory
• A flip-flop can remember one bit of data.
• Sets of flip-flops are called registers, and can hold bytes of
data.
• Sets of registers are called memories, and can hold many
thousands of bits, or more.
• It is a Sequential Circuits / an electronic circuit which
has two stable states and thereby is capable of
serving as one bit of memory , bit 1 or bit 0.
• They are 1 (HIGH) or 0
(LOW).
• Whenever we refer to
the state of flip flop, we
refer to the state of its
normal output (Q)
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  Flip flops Counters
• Flip-Flop means a digital circuit of two stable states at an output:
• 1 means, rise on top. It means Flip, and 0 means fall to ground. It means flop.
• Stable state can change only after a clock input applies.
• A particular combination of Q and Q’represents a stable state. An FF is also
called a bistable digital circuit.
• One of the stable state is Q = 1 and Q’ = 0, and other stable state is Q= 0 and Q’
= 1.
• An FF has one or two inputs and clock edge. The logic states at these inputs
and the previous Q determine what shall be the current outputs.
• Flip flops are of different types depending on how their inputs and clock pulses
cause transition between states.
• Flip-flops are fundamental building blocks of digital electronics systems
used in computers, communications, and many other types of systems.
There are four types:
iii. JK flip-flop
i. Clocked RS (“Set-Reset") flip-flop
iv. T (“Toggle") flip-flop
ii. D ("data" or "delay") flip-flop
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  Sequential Circuits
A sequential circuit is a circuit made up by combining logic gates such that
the required logic at the output(s) depends not only on the current input logic
conditions but also on the past inputs, Outputs and sequences. Sequential
action means
• To remember what steps are to be done next ,
• To recall which step has just been finished . A sequential circuit consists of
a feedback path , and employs some memory elements.
Sequential Circuits Block Diagram

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  Programmable Logic device
• Programmable logic refers to a general class of devices which
can be configured to perform a variety of logic functions.
• The process of entering the information into these devices is
known as programming.
• Four commonly used PLDs considered:
 The devices range from simple, programmable read-only
memory(PROM), devices which can implement simple
combinatorial logic, to PAL's, programmable array logic (PAL),
to FPGA's, field programmable gate arrays. All these devices
share the feature that they are programmed to perform
specific functions.
• Other PLDs include erasable programmable logic devices
(EPLDs) including erasable programmable ROMs, generic
array logic (GAL) devices, and programmable logic
sequencers (PLSs).
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 What is Programmable Logic?
In the world of digital electronic systems, there are three basic
kinds of devices: memory, microprocessors, and logic.
• Memory devices store random information such as the
contents of a spreadsheet or database.
• Microprocessors execute software instructions to perform a
wide variety of tasks such as running a word processing
program or video game.
• Logic devices provide specific functions, including device-
to-device interfacing, data communication, signal processing,
data display, timing and control operations, and almost every
other function a system must perform.

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 The PLD Advantage
Fixed logic devices and programmable logic devices (PLDs) both have their
advantages.
Fixed logic devices, for example, are often more appropriate for large volume
applications because they can be mass-produced more economically. For
certain applications where the very highest performance is required, fixed
logic devices may also be the best choice.
However, programmable logic devices offer a number of important
advantages over fixed logic devices, including:
• PLDs offer customers much more flexibility during the design cycle
• PLDs do not require long lead times for prototypes or production parts -
the
• PLDs are already on a distributor's shelf and ready for shipment.
• PLDs do not require customers to pay for large NRE costs and purchase
expensive mask sets
• PLDs allow customers to order just the number of parts they need, when
they need them, allowing them to control inventory.
• PLDs can be reprogrammed even after a piece of equipment is shipped to a
customer. 58
• Some PLDs are made to perform only combinational logic
functions; others can perform both combinational and
sequential logic functions.
• Four commonly used PLDs considered here are :
• The read-only memory (ROM) devices and their subgroups,
• The programmable logic array (PLA) devices
• The programmable array logic (PAL) devices and their
subgroups, and
• programmable gate arrays (PGAs) and subgroups.
• Other PLDs include erasable programmable logic devices
(EPLDs) including erasable programmable ROMs, generic
array logic (GAL) devices, and programmable logic
sequencers (PLSs).
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 Read-only memory (ROM)
• Read Only Memory (ROM) is a memory device, which stores the binary information
permanently. It can retain stored information even after power is removed
• The data that is required to be stored inside ROM is written during manufacturing
phase.
• ROM consists of two basic components : Decoder and OR gates.
• In ROM, the input to decoder will be in binary form and output will be its decimal
equivalent. All the OR Gates present in the ROM will take decoders output as their
input.
Types of Read Only Memory (ROM)
ROM is differentiated on the basis of methods used to write data on ROM chips and the
number of times they can be written. It can be classified into following types :
i. Mask Read-Only Memory (MROM)
ii. Programmable Read-Only Memory (PROM)
iii. Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory (EPROM)
iv. Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory (EEPROM)
v. Flash Read-Only Memory (Flash ROM)

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  A programmable logic array (PLA)
• A programmable logic array (PLA) is a kind of programmable logic device used to
implement combinational logic circuits.
• The PLA has a set of programmable AND gate planes, which link to a set of
programmable OR gate planes, which can then be conditionally complemented to
produce an output.
• This layout allows for a large number of logic functions to be synthesized in the sum
of products (and sometimes product of sums) canonical forms.
Applications of PLAs
• A micro- processor chip uses many PLAs because of easy of design change and
check.
• In particular, PLAs are used in its control logic, which is complex and requires many
changes, even during its design.
• Also, PLAs are used for code conversions, microprogram address conversions,
decision tables, bus priority resolvers, and memory overlay

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Field-Programmable Gate Array (FPGA):
• A field-programmable gate array (FPGA) is an integrated circuit designed to
be configured by a customer or a designer after manufacturing – hence the
term "field-programmable”.
• It is a VLSI (Very Large-Scale Integration) circuit whose function is defined
by a user's program rather than by the manufacturer of the device. Depending
on the particular device, the program is either 'burned' in permanently or semi-
permanently as part of a board assembly process, or is loaded from an external
memory each time the device is powered up.
• Applications of FPGA:
FPGAs have gained rapid growth over the past decade because they are
useful for a wide range of applications. Specific application of an FPGA
includes digital signal processing, bioinformatics, device controllers, software-
defined radio, random logic, ASIC prototyping, medical imaging, computer
hardware emulation, integrating multiple SPLDs, voice recognition ,
cryptography, filtering and communication encoding and many more.
 Thank You

12/02/2024 63