PSYCHOAN

ALYSIS
 Sigmund Freud
(1856 was an – 1939)
Austrian
neurologist and is known as the Father of
Psychoanalysis. Freud believed that people
could be
cured by making conscious their unconscious
thoughts and motivations, thus gaining
"insight". The
aim of Psychoanalysis therapy is to release
repressed emotions and experiences, i.e.
make the
unconscious conscious. To bring what exists
at the
unconscious or subconscious level up to
 Psychoanal
ysis
▪ Psychoanalysis is a type of therapy that aims
to release pent-up or repressed emotions and
memories in order to lead the client to catharsis,
or healing (McLeod, 2014).
▪ A theory of the mind and its direct connection
to a personality or behavior. The basic premise
of psychoanalysis is that the human mind has an
unconscious state.
▪ A system of psychological theory and therapy
investigating the interaction of conscious and
unconscious elements in the mind.
▪ A method for treating depression and anxiety
disorders or mental illness and also a theory
 Freud believed that the most unconscious
desire originates from childhood
experiences that people have long
forgotten or repressed. Our childhood has a
great influence on our adult lives, shaping
our personality. Freud believed that the
most unconscious desire originates from
childhood experiences that people have
long forgotten or repressed. Our childhood
has a great influence on our adult lives,
 Stages of Psychosexual
Development of
1. Oral Stage
- Manifest fromPersonality
birth to approximately 18 months
- The child is totally dependent on others to provide for his/her needs
- Pleasure is derived from the use of the mouth in activities such as sucking,
chewing, and biting.
- Personality developed in this stage is dependence.
2. Anal Stage
- This begins at 18 months and lasts until 3 years when the child is being toilet
trained.
- the child seeks pleasure from the anus (e.g., withholding and expelling feces)
- The personality developed in this stage is independence, self-control, orderliness
and sense of accomplishment.
 Stages of Psychosexual
Development of
3. Phallic Stage
Personality
- 3-6 years of age
- During this stage the child develops attraction to their parents of the opposite sex
and sees jealous and rivalrous relationship with his or her parents of the same sex.
- This is what Freud termed as Oedipus Complex for boy and the Electra Complex
for girls.
- Parents seen as threats
- Wide range of psychological disorders through failure to resolve this conflict,
(unreasonable anxiety, phobias, & depression)
- Ego developed more, superego starts to develop lately
- the child seeks pleasure from the penis or clitoris (e.g., masturbation);
 Stages of Psychosexual
Development of
Personality
4. Latent Stage
- 6-12 years of age
- Personality traits developed in this stage are associated with social skills
and social interactions.
- Pleasure is gained through same sex /peer friendship
5. Genital Stage
- 12 years of age onward or from puberty to adulthood.
- Seeks marriage partner, preparation for adult life.
- The personality developed in this stage is sexual maturity.
 Key Concepts in
Psychoanalysis
According to Freud the id, ego, and
superego all operate across three
levels of awareness in the human mind.
They are the conscious, unconscious,
and preconscious. Freud used the
analogy of an iceberg to describe the
three levels of the mind. The tip is the
conscious level, the part below the sea
line is the preconscious and the major
portion beneath the sea is the
 ▪ Conscious: This is where our current thoughts, feelings, and focus live; the
level of the mind is the accessible information, memories and thoughts that
the individual has. The conscious consists of what someone is aware of at any
particular point in time. It includes what you are thinking about right now,
whether it is in the front of you mind or the back. If you are aware of it then it
is in the conscious mind.

▪ Preconscious (sometimes called the subconscious): This is the home of

everything we can recall or retrieve from our memory; the level where
accessible and retrievable information are situated. The preconscious contains
information that is just below the surface of awareness.

▪ Unconscious: contains thoughts, emotions, feelings, memories and desire

that are inaccessible. It resides in the deepest level of our minds that
influence our behavior. Even though we are not aware of their existence, they
 PSYCHODYNAMICS OF A
Freud used the Id, PERSON’S
Ego, and SuperegoPERSONALITY
to try to explain how the mind functions and
how a personality is shaped
1. The ID
- Occupies the unconscious level.
- The primitive and instinctive component of personality.
- It is the immature component of personality; it only seeks pleasure and
demands gratification.
- When the Id has a desire for something, that desire needs to be satisfied at
once. It does not take reality into account as it only demands what it wants
without reason or logic.
- Operates on the “Pleasure Principle” and strives for all urges to be met
immediately
- Id is the selfish side and is the one whom solely cares about themselves and
no one else
 PSYCHODYNAMICS OF A
Freud used the Id, PERSON’S
Ego, and SuperegoPERSONALITY
to try to explain how the mind functions and
how a personality is shaped
2. The EGO
- Resides in the conscious and preconscious level of the mind.
- The ego is the moderator between the id and the superego
- Operates on the “Reality Principle”
– tries to satisfy id but in accordance with the real world. It considers social
realities, norms, etiquette, rules, and customs when it makes a decision on how
to behave.
- Considered as the center of logic and reasoning
- The decision maker, it makes the decisions that dictate behavior.
- Conscious part of the mind (Rational Self). Decides what action to take for
positive means and what to do base on what is believed to be the right thing to
do. Aware of reality.
 PSYCHODYNAMICS OF A
Freud used the Id, PERSON’S
Ego, and SuperegoPERSONALITY
to try to explain how the mind functions and
how a personality is shaped
3. The SUPEREGO
- Resides in all three levels of the mind.
- The superego is the portion of the mind in which morality and higher principles
reside, encouraging us to act in socially and morally acceptable ways (McLeod,
2013).
- It is our morals, ethics and social aspect of personality. It is considered as a
person’s conscience.
- It guides us on what is right and wrong.
- Responsible for society’s rules of behavior (moral standards). Feels guilty if
rules are disobeyed - Base on the morality principle, must follow moral
standards and rules and breaking them causes guilt.
 Defense Mechanisms
Freud believed that these three parts of the mind are in constant conflict
because each part has a different primary goal. When the conflict is too
much for a person to handle, his or her ego may engage in one or many
defense mechanisms
DefensetoMechanism
protect the individual.
- Refers to processes of self
-deception, that protects people from anxious thoughts or feelings. - Are
thought to safeguard the mind against feelings and thoughts that are too
difficult for the conscious mind to cope with.
- Operate at an unconscious level and help ward off unpleasant feelings
(i.e., anxiety) or make good things feel better for the individual.
- A tactic developed by the ego to protect against anxiety. We use
defense mechanisms to protect ourselves from feelings of anxiety or
guilt, which arise because we feel threatened, or because our id or
superego becomes too demanding.
 Major defense
mechanisms include:
1. Denial
– is often used to describe situations in which
people seem unable to face reality or admit an
obvious truth. (He’s in denial).
- The ego blocks upsetting or overwhelming
experiences from awareness, causing the individual
to refuse to acknowledge or believe what is
happening
- Is an outright refusal to admit or recognize that
something has occurred or is currently occurring.
- Refusing to organize or acknowledge real facts or
experiences that would lead to anxiety.
 Major defense
mechanisms include:
2. Displacement
- redirecting an emotional reaction from the rightful
recipient to another person altogether.
- Involves taking out our frustrations, feelings and
impulses on people or objects that are less
threatening. - Displaced aggression
- is a common example of defense mechanism.
- Example: a manager screams at his/her employee,
the employee doesn't scream back- but the
employee may yell at her partner later at night.
(e.g., releasing frustration directed toward your
boss on your spouse instead)
 Major defense
mechanisms include:
3. Repression
–acts to keep information out of conscious awareness. However, these
memories don’t just disappear: they continue to influence our behavior.
- The ego pushes disturbing or threatening thoughts out of one’s
consciousness

4. Sublimation
– Similar to displacement, this defense mechanism involves satisfying an
impulse by acting on a substitute but in a socially acceptable way. It allows
us to act on unacceptable impulses by converting these behaviors into more
acceptable forms.
Example: a person experiencing extreme anger might take up kick-boxing as
a means of venting frustration or channeling energy into work or a
 Major defense
mechanisms include:
5. Projection
– is a defense mechanism that involves taking our own unacceptable qualities
or feelings and ascribing them to other people. Attributing one’s unacceptable
feelings or desires to someone else.
Example: if you have a strong dislike for someone, you might instead believe
that he or she does not like you.

6. Regression
– As a defense mechanism, the individual moves backward in development in
order to cope with stress (e.g., an overwhelmed adult acting like a child)
 Sigmund Freud
(1856 was an – 1939)
Austrian
neurologist and is known as the Father of
Psychoanalysis. Freud believed that people
could be
cured by making conscious their unconscious
thoughts and motivations, thus gaining
"insight". The
aim of Psychoanalysis therapy is to release
repressed emotions and experiences, i.e.
make the
unconscious conscious. To bring what exists
at the
unconscious or subconscious level up to
 Carl Gustuv Jung
(1875–1961)
was a Swiss Psychiatrist and Psychoanalyst who
founded Analytical Psychology. It is distinguished by
a focus on the role of symbolic experiences in
human life, taking a prospective approach to the
issues presented in therapy. For Jung, a healthy
mental life is achieved through a balanced and a
well-understood personality. Jung’s theory of
personality has been modified and changed over
time, but his concepts of introversion and
extroversion survive over the years. While
introversion, on the other hand is the personality
which is motivated by inner necessity. The focus of
the individual tends towards the self. The introvert
person derives analysis and conclusion upon how
statistical data makes an mpression upon his or her
 Jacques Lacan
(1901–1981)
was a Parisian Psychiatrist who was born in 1901
and
who died in 1981. He gained an international
reputation as an original interpreter of Sigmund
Freud’s work. Lacan’s Psychoanalytic theory
centered on language. He
believes that Psychotherapy requires a
communication between the patients and the
specialist because the medium by which
Psychoanalysis operates is through language.
Lacan’s first major paper in a Psychoanalytic
conference talked about what he called “mirror
stage”. The mirror stage can be associated with
Freud’s development of the super ego and the
phallic stage of development. This mirror could be
 Erich Fromm (1900–
1980)
was a German Sociologist, Psychologist and
Psychoanalyst. He developed a distinct type of
Psychoanalysis
which he called Humanistic Psychoanalysis. This type
of
psychoanalysis uses historical, anthropological, and
psychological perspective to approach an individual.
Fromm’s
Psychoanalytic theory assumes that humans have lost
their ties with nature and are now left with no
instincts capable to adapt to the ever-changing world.
But since humans developed the ability to reason,
they can rationalize their isolated existence or
condition. Fromm called this rationalization human
dilemma. A dilemma is a problem. The human
dilemma is the problem of reuniting with nature, in a
 Louis Althusser
was a French Marxist Philosopher
(1918–1990)
which used Psychoanalytic theory to form and
support his philosophy. Central to Althusser’s
philosophy is his reinvention of what Marx
termed as ideology. In a Marxist perspective,
ideology is the false consciousness
perpetuated by capital industrialists to further
control the working class. For Althusser,
ideology is a reflection or misrepresentation of
our already imaginary understanding of the
world, the reality, society and culture. What he
created in his philosophy is the idea that an
individual is turned into a subject and a
member of society through ideology. Ideology
RATIONAL
CHOICE
 RATIONAL CHOICE
THEORY
Rational choice theory also called as rational action theory or choice theory,
states that individuals use rational calculations to make rational choices and
achieve
outcomes that are aligned with their own personal objectives. These results
are also
associated with an individual’s best, self-interest. Using rational choice theory,
it is
estimated that the outcomes provide people with the greatest benefit and
satisfaction
given the choices they have available.
It is used to model human decision making, especially in the context of
Microeconomics, where it helps Economists better understand the behavior of
a
 Here are some questions
commonly asked during
cost –benefit analysis:
- Will this benefit me?
- How will this benefit me?
- How far I’m going to negotiate?
- What will I have to sacrifice?
- How much will it cost?
For example, Sebastian has two classmates whom he wants
to be friends with: Ethan,
a social outcast but has the newest action game, and
Alyster, the most popular in the class but does not like to
play action games. Sebastian’s first level of cost –benefit
analysis is choosing between having the chance to play the
newest game or not. His second level of cost-benefit
analysis is choosing whether he would like to be associated
with social outcast or with the most popular student in class.
The rational choice for Sebastian would then be dependent
 The key elements of all rational choice
explanations are individual preferences, beliefs,
and constraints. Preferences denote the positive
or negative evaluations individuals attach to the
possible outcomes of their actions. Beliefs refer
to perceived cause-effect relations, including the
perceived likelihood with which an individual’s
actions will result in different possible outcomes.
ASSUMPTIONS
OF THE
RATIONAL
According to Peter Abell (2000), there are a few assumptions made by rational
choice
theorists.
1. Individualism – it is the individuals who ultimately take actions. Individuals, as
actors in the society and everywhere the go, behave and act always as rational
beings, self-calculating, self-interested and self-maximizing. These individual
social actions are the ultimate source of larger social outcomes.

2. Optimality – Individuals choose their actions optimally, given their individual

preferences as well as the opportunities or constraints with which they are faced
with. Abell (2000) defines optimality as taking place when no other course of
social action would be preferred by the individual over the course of action the
individual has chosen. This does not mean that the course of action that the
actor adopts is the best in terms of some objective, and outside judgment.The
rational choice theory, therefore assumes, according to Abell (2000), that
individuals “do the best they can, given their circumstances as they see them”.
 According to Peter Abell (2000), there are a few assumptions made by rational
choice
theorists.
3. Structures - Abell argues that structures and norms that dictate a single cour
of action are merely special cases of rational choice theory. In other words, th
range of choices in other circumstances differ from choices in a strong structur
circumstance, where there may be only one choice. Although these structure
may be damaging to the rational choice model, individuals will often find a wa
to exercise action optimally, hence the rational choice model may not
necessarily show harmony, consensus, or equality in courses of action. Again
structures, as we know them, may not be optimal from the viewpoint of an
individual with few resources, however, the rational choice approach will
attempt to explain how this situation emerges and is maintained through ration
choices.
 According to Peter Abell (2000), there are a few assumptions made by rational
choice
theorists.
3. Structures - Abell argues that structures and norms that dictate a single cour
of action are merely special cases of rational choice theory. In other words, th
range of choices in other circumstances differ from choices in a strong structur
circumstance, where there may be only one choice. Although these structure
may be damaging to the rational choice model, individuals will often find a wa
to exercise action optimally, hence the rational choice model may not
necessarily show harmony, consensus, or equality in courses of action. Again
structures, as we know them, may not be optimal from the viewpoint of an
individual with few resources, however, the rational choice approach will
attempt to explain how this situation emerges and is maintained through ration
choices.
 According to Peter Abell (2000), there are a few assumptions made by rational
choice
theorists.

. Self-Regarding Interest – This assumption states that the actions of the

idual are concerned entirely with his or her own welfare. Abell (2000) note
t in as much as this is a key assumption in the rational choice approach, is
not as essential to the approach as the assumption on optimality.

Rationality – This appears to be the most predominant assumption of the

onal choice theory. All individuals, according to this assumption, act in way
hat would benefit them more; every individual is most likely to undertake
urses of actions that they perceive to be the best possible option and one
that would immensely be to their own advantage.
 Key Concepts in
Rational Choice
Social consequences of Scarcity-based Decision
Theory
Human beings have unlimited wants but only limited resources.
Scarcity of resources and the requirements of human’s unending
ambitions force us to make a choice. The most essential rational
choice is to conserve the limited resources and share these with
each other. However, in every choice we make, opportunity cost
exist. The decision to make such choices depends upon our
mind-set, especially those individuals who only seek self-interest
and what benefits them most. Such structure of human nature
being described in the context of rational choice theory and
further elaborates on the tragedy of the commons.
IMPORTANT
THEORIST
 was an English economist
William Stanley
who applied the principles of rational choice theory in Jevons (1835–
political
economy. Jevons was one of the first to advance the 1882)
theory of
marginal utility(value), which sought application in
determining
and understanding consumer’s behaviour. This theory
states that
the utility (value) of something decreases as more of it
is
consumed. The theory held that the utility (value) of
 Gary Becker
was an American economist who
expanded the study of economics to the realm of
(1930–2014)
sociology and other social sciences. Suggesting
that human behaviour is subject to economic
analysis, Becker argued that individuals act to
minimize their own welfare, thereby taking the
scope of economics beyond mere calculation of
financial gains. Like other theorist of rational
choice theory, Becker ascribes to the principle
that humans behave according to their “perceived
values and preferences”.
 Criticisms and
Limitations
Rational choice theory is heavily criticized
for its neglect of ethical and moral
standards. The main philosophy of rational
choice theory is the acquisition of personal
interest, power and wealth. It is not strict
with the method and the product of
decision?
making: rather, it analyses the outcome and
the preferences based on what is optimal
THANK
YOU!!