NETWORKS

PORTIONS OF N/W
• Evolution of networking: introduction to computer networks, evolution of networking
(ARPANET, NSFNET, INTERNET)
• Data communication terminologies: concept of communication, components of data
communication (sender,receiver, message, communication media, protocols),
measuring capacity of communication media (bandwidth, data transfer rate), IP
address, switching techniques (Circuit switching, Packet switching)
• Transmission media: Wired communication media (Twisted pair cable, Co-axial cable,
Fiber-optic cable), Wireless media (Radio waves, Micro waves, Infrared waves)
• Network devices (Modem, Ethernet card, RJ45, Repeater, Hub, Switch, Router,
Gateway, WIFI card)
• Network topologies and Network types: types of networks (PAN, LAN, MAN, WAN),
networking topologies (Bus, Star, Tree)
• Network protocol: HTTP, FTP, PPP, SMTP, TCP/IP, POP3, HTTPS, TELNET, VoIP
• Introduction to web services: WWW, Hyper Text Markup Language (HTML), Extensible
Markup Language (XML), domain names, URL, website, web browser, web servers, web
hosting
 EVOLUTION OF NETWORKING
NETWORKING:
• A group of 2 or more similar things or
people interconnected with each other is
called network.
• A computer network is an interconnection
among 2 or more computers or computer
devices.Such interconnection allows
computers to share data and resources among
each other.
• The network size may vary from small to large
depending on the no.of computers it
connects.
• A computer network can include different
types of hosts(also called nodes) like
server,desktop,laptop,cellular phones.
Evolution of Networking
1960
Evolution of networking
ARPANET(ADVANCED RESEARCH PROJECT AGENCY NETWORK)
A research project –commissioned by ARPANET in U.S
department of Defence to connect the academic and research
institutions

1971 Roy Tomlinson develops network messaging or Email.Symbol @

comes to mean “at”

1974 The term “internet” was coined. First commercial use of

ARPANET, was started in the name of Telenet
1982 TCP/IP introduced as standard protocol on ARPANET
1983 Domain name system introduced
1986 NSF brings connectivity to more people with its NSFNET program
1990 The Berners-Lee at CERN developed HTML and URL, thus giving
birth to WWW
1997 First version of WIFI(802.11) standard was introduced
DATA COMMUNICATION TERMINOLOGIES

• Data can be any text,image,audi,video and

multimedia files.
• Data communication refers to the exchange of
data b/w 2 or more networked or connected
devices.
 Components of Data Communication
• Sender
• Receiver
• Message
• Communication media
• Protocols
Sender:
A sender is a computer or any such device
which is capable of sending data over a
network.
It can be a Computer,Mobile phone,
smartwatch etc.,
Receiver:
• A receiver is a computer or any such device
which is capable of receiving data from the
network.
• In computer communication,the sender and
receive are known as nodes in a network.
Message:
It is the data or information that needs to be
exchanged between the sender and the
receiver.
Communication media:
It is the path through the message travels
between source and destination.It is also called
medium or link which is either wired or
wireless.
Protocols:
It is a set of rules that need to be followed by
the communicating parties in order to have
successful and reliable data communication.
 Measuring Capacity
In data communication,the transmission
medium is also known as channel.
The capacity of a channel is the maximum
amount of signals or traffic that a channel can
carry.
It is measured in terms of bandwidth and DTR
 Measuring Capacity
Bandwidth:
• Bandwidth of a channel is the range of
frequencies available for transmission of data
through that channel.
• Bandwidth is measured in Hertz(Hz).
• Bandwidth is the difference of maximum and
minimum frequency contained in the
composite signals.
Data Transfer Rate:
• Data travels in the form of signals over a
channel.
• One Signal carries one or more bits over the
channel.
• DTR is the no.of bits transmitted b/w source
and destination in one second.
• It is also known as bit rate.
It is measured in terms of bits per second(bps).
1Kbps=1024 bps
1 Mbps=1024Kbps
1Gbps=1024Mbps
1Tbps=1024 Gbps
MBps=>Mega Byte per second
Mbps=>Megabit per second
 SWITCHING TECHNIQUES
There are two commonly used switching
techniques
They are,
• Circuit Switching
• Packet Switching
 CIRCUIT SWITCHING
Circuit switching is a method of implementing
a telecommunications network in which two
network nodes establish a dedicated
communications channel (circuit) through the
network before the nodes may communicate.
 PACKET SWITCHING
• In packet switching,each information or
message to be transmitted between sender
and receiver is broken down into smaller
pieces,called packets.
• These packets are the transmitted
independently through the network.
• Different packets of the same message may
take different routes depending on availability.
 TRANSMISSION MEDIA
• A transmission medium can be anything that
can carry signals or data between the source
and destination.
• In data communication,transmission media
are the links that carry messages between 2 or
more communicating devices.
Guided and Unguided transmission media

• In guided transmission media,There is a

physical link made of wire/cable through which
the data in terms of signals are propagated
between the nodes.
• They are also known as wired media.
• In unguided transmission, data travels in air in
terms of electromagnetic waves using an
antenna.
• They are also called as wireless media.
• Dish shaped antennas are used for sending
and receiving data at longer distances. These
antennas are mounted on taller buildings.
• Waves are gradually become weaker and
weaker after travelling a certain distance
through the air.
• So,repeaters are installed to regenerate the
signals of the same energy.
 Wired Transmission Media
There are 3 commonly used guided/wired media
for data transmission.
Twisted pair cable:
• A twisted –pair consists of 2 copper wires
twisted like a DNA helical structure.
• Both the copper wires are insulated with plastic
covers.Usually, a no.of such pairs are combined
together and covered with a protective outer
wrapping
• Each of the twisted pairs acts as a singl
communication link.
• The use of twisted configuration minimises
the effect of electrical interference from
similar pairs close by.
• Twisted pairs are less expensive and most
commonly used in telephone lines and LANs.
These cables are of 2 types:
Unshielded Twisted Pair & Shielded Twisted pair
Coaxial cable:
Coaxial cable is better shielded and has more
bandwidth than a twisted pair.
It has a copper wire at the core of the cable
which is surrounded with an outer
conductor(copper mesh).
The outer conductor is wrapped in a plastic
cover.
• The key to success of coaxial cable as it is
shielded design that allows the cable’s copper
core to transmit data quickly,without
interference of environmental factors.
• It is used to carry signals of higher frequencies
to a longer distance.
Optical fiber:
• The optical fiber cable carries data as a
light,which travels inside a thin fiber of glass.
• Optic fiber uses refraction to direct the light
through the media.
• A thin transparent strand of glass at the centre
is covered with a layer of less dense glass
called cladding.
These cables are of light weight and have higher
bandwidth which means higher DTR.
Signal can travel longer distances and
electromagnetic noise cannot affect the cable.
Optical fibres are expensive and unidirectional
 WIRELESS MEDIA
• In wireless communication technology ,
information travels in the form of
electromagnetic signals through air.
• Electromagnetic spectrum of frequency
ranging from 3KHz to 900THz.
• Wireless technologies allow communication
b/w 2 or more devices in short to long
distances without requiring any physical
media.
The electromagnetic spectrum range can be
divided into 4 categories.
 RADIO WAVES
1. Waves of frequency range 3 KHz-1 GHz
2. These waves can move in all directions-Omni-
directional
3. Radio waves of frequency 300KHz-30MHz can travel
long distance.
4. Susceptible to interference.
5. Radio waves of frequency 3-300KHz can penetrate
walls.
6. These waves are used in AM and FM
radio,television,cordless phones.
 Microwaves
• Electromagnetic waves of frequency range 1 GHz-
300GHz.
• Unidirectional,can move in only one direction.
• Cannot penetrate solid objects such as walls,hills
or mountains.
• Needs line-of-sight propagation
• Used in point –to- point communication or unicast
communication such as radar and satellite.
• Provide very large information carrying capacity.
 Infra red waves
1.Electromagnetic waves of frequency range
300GHz-400THz.
2.Very high frequency waves.
3.Cannot penetrate solid objects such as walls.
4.Used for short distance Point –to- point
communication such as mobile to
mobile,mobile to printer,remote control to TV
etc.,
 SATELLITE
Satellite communication relies on the
transmission of signals between
ground stations and satellites in orbit.
This unguided media type is essential
for global communication, including
television broadcasting, internet
connectivity in remote areas, and GPS
navigation.
 NETWORK DEVICES
To communicate data through different
transmission media and with different to
configure networks with different functionality,
we require different devices like
• Modem
• Hub
• Repeater
• Router
• Gateway
 Modem

• Modem stands for ‘Modulator DEModulator’.

• It refers to a device for conversion between
analog signals and digital bits.
• A modem converts data to a signal so it can be
easily sent and received over a phone line,
cable, or satellite connection.
 Ethernet card
• Ethernet card ,also known as Network
Interface Card(NIC card).
• It is a network adapter used to set up a wired
network
• It acts as an interface b/w computer and
network.
• It is a circuit board mounted on the
motherboard of a computer.
• The Ethernet cable connects the computer to
the network through NIC.Ethernet cards can
support data transfer between 10Mbps and 1
Gbps.
• Each NIC has a MAC address,which helps in
uniquely identifying the computer on the
network
 RJ45
• RJ45(Registered Jack 45) is an 8 pin connector
that is used exclusively with Ethernet cables
for networking.
• It is a standard networking interface that can
be seen at the end of all network cables.
• It is a small plastic plug that fits into RJ45 jacks
of the Ethernet cards present in various
computing devices.
 REPEATER
• Data are carried in the form of signals over the
cable.
• These signal can travel a specified
distance(about 100m).
• Signals lose their strength beyond this limit
and become weak.
• Repeater is an analog device that work with
signals on the cables to which it is connected.
• The weakened signal appearing on the cable is
regenerated and put back on the cable by a
repeater.
 HUB
Ethernet hub is a device used to connect
different devices through wires.
Data arriving on any of the lines are sent out on
all the others.
The limitation of Hub is that if data from 2
devices come at the same time,they will
collide.
 SWITCH

• A switch is a networking device that play a central

role in a LAN.
• Like a hub,a network switch is used to connect
multiple computers or communicating devices.
• A network switch forwards data packets between
devices.
• Switches send packets directly to devices, rather
than sending them to networks like a router does.
• It is called an intelligent device.
 HUB
• A hub is a basically multi-port
repeater.
• A hub connects multiple wires
coming from different branches,
• for example, the connector in star
topology which connects different
stations.
• Hubs cannot filter data, so data
packets are sent to all connected
devices.
Difference between switch and hub
1. Intelligence: Switches are intelligent, while
Hubs are not
2. Data forwarding: Switches forward data to
specific devices, while Hubs broadcast to all.
3. Collision handling: Switches reduce collisions,
while Hubs increase collisions.
4. Security: Switches are more secure than Hubs.
5. Performance: Switches are faster than Hubs.
 Router
• A router is a network device that can receive the data ,
analyse it and transmit it to other networks
• it can be wired or wireless
• Routers bring the Internet to your devices

• A router connects your devices to each other and, in hard-

wired connection setups, to the modem.
• The router connects to your modem and then to your
devices (laptops, smart TVs, printers, etc.) via either an
Ethernet cable or, in the case of a wireless router, WiFi
signal.
 GATEWAY
• It a key access point that acts as a gate
between an organisation’s network and the
outside world of the internet.
• Gateway serves as the entry and exit point of
a network, as all data coming in or going out
of a network must first pass through the
gateway in order to use routing paths.
• It is used to connect dissimilar networks.
 WIFI CARD
• A Wifi card, also known as a wireless network adapter or WLAN card,

is a hardware component that allows a device to connect to a

wireless network.

• It is an essential component for devices such as laptops, desktop

computers, and gaming consoles, enabling them to establish a

wireless connection to the internet.

• Wifi cards use radio waves to transmit and receive data over the

airwaves.

• They communicate with a wireless router or access point, which acts

as a gateway to the internet.

 NETWORKING TOPOLOGIES
The arrangement of a network that comprises
nodes and connecting lines via sender and
receiver is referred to as network topology.
1. Mesh topology
2. Ring topology
3. Bus topology
4. Star topology
5. Tree or Hybrid topology
 Mesh topology
Each communication device is connected with
every device in the n/w.
Such a network can handle large amount of
traffic since multiple nodes can transmit data
simultaneously.
It is more secure because each cable b/w 2
nodes carries different data.
Wiring is complex and cabling cost is high.
 RING TOPOLOGY
Each node is connected to two other devices,
one each on either side.
The nodes connected with each other thus
forms a ring.
Data can be transmitted in one direction only
 BUS TOPOLOGY
• Each communicating device connects to a
transmission medium known as bus.
• Data sent from a node are passed on to the
bus and hence are transmitted to the length of
the bus in both directions.
• A single backbone wire called bus is shared
among the nodes, which make it cheaper and
easier to maintain.
 STAR TOPOLOGY
Each communicating device is connected to a
central node ,which is a networking device like
a hub or a switch.
Star topology is considered very
effective ,efficient and fast as each device is
directly connected with the central device.
Advantages of star topology
Centralized management of the network, through the use of the central computer,
hub, or switch.
Easy to add another computer to the network.
If one computer on the network fails, the rest of the network continues to function
normally.
Disadvantages of star topology
May have a higher cost to implement, especially when using a switch or router as the
central network device.
The central network device determines the performance and number of nodes the
network can handle.
If the central computer, hub, or switch fails, the entire network goes down and all
computers are disconnected from the network.
 TREE TOPOLOGY
• A tree topology is a special type of structure
where many connected elements are arranged
like the branches of a tree.
• For example, tree topologies are frequently
used to organize the computers in a corporate
network, or the information in a database.
• In a tree topology, there can be only one
connection between any two connected nodes.
• Because any two nodes can have only one
mutual connection, tree topologies create a
natural parent and child hierarchy.
In computer networks, a tree topology is also
known as a star bus topology.
It incorporates elements of both a bus topology
and a star topology
 TYPES OF NETWORK

There are various types of network

They are ,
• Personal Area Network(PAN)
• Local Area Network(LAN)
• Metropolitan Area Network(MAN)
• Wide Area Network(WAN)
 Personal Area Network
• It is a network formed by connecting a
personal devices like
computers,laptops,mobile phones,smart
phones etc.,
• All these devices lie within an approximate
range of 10 mts.
• It can be wired or wireless.
 Local Area Network
• It is a network that connects computers, mobile
phones,tablet,mouse,printer etc., placed at a
limited distance.
• The geographical area covered by a LAN can
range from a single room,a floor,laboratory etc.,
• These types of networks can be extended up to
1 km.
• Data transfer in LAN is quite highand usually
varies from 10 Mbps to 1000 Mbps.
 Metropolitan Area Network
• It is an extended form of LAN which covers a
larger geographical area like city or a town.
• Cable TV network or cable based broadband
internet services are examples of MAN.
• It can be extended up to 30-40 km.
• Sometimes ,many LANs are connected
together to form MAN
 WIDE AREA NETWORK
• Wide Area Network connects computers and
other LANs and MANs, which are spread
across geographical locations of a country or
in different countries or continents.
• Internet is the largest WAN that connects
billions of computers , smart phones and
millions of LANs from different continents.
 URL
• Uniform Resource Locator .It is a unique
address or path of each resource located on
the web
• It is also known as URI(Uniform Resource
Identifier).
• Every page on web has a unique URL.
Example:
https://www.ncert.in/textbook/textbook.html
 IP ADDRESS
IP address,also known as Internet Protocol address
is also a unique address that can be used to
uniquely identify each node in a network.
The IP addresses are assigned to each node in a
network that uses the internet protocol for
communication.
192:168:0:178 ----IPV4 (32bit)
2001:CDBA:0000:0000: 0000:0000:3257:9652---
IPV6(128 bit)
 DOMIN NAME SYSTEM
• Each website is stored on a sever which is connected to
the internet , which means each server has an IP
address.
• Every device connected to the Internet has an IP
address.To access a website, we need to enter its IP
address on our web browser.
• Each computer server hosting a website or web resource
is given a name against its IP address.
• These names are called the Domain names or host
names corresponding to unique IP addresses assigned to
each server.
HTTP VS HTTPS
 NETWORK PROTOCOLS
• Network protocols is a set of rules that
determines the data communication among
different devices connected on a network.
• Different protocols play different roles in
transmission from one computer to other
irrespective of their structure and design.
 Types of Protocols
• Hypertext Transfer Protocol(HTTP)
• Hypertext Transfer Protocol secure(HTTPS)
• Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol(TCP/IP)
• File Transfer Protocol(FTP)
• Point to Point Protocol(PPP)
• Telecommunication Protocol(Telnet)
• Post Office Protocol 3
• Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
• Voice Over Internet Protocol(VOIP)
 HTTP
It is a set of rules for transferring hypertext documents between
two or more computers worldwide with the help of protocol
prompt http.
The web addresses begin with http:// which is followed by website.
The word http is always followed by a colon(:) and two forward
slashes(//).
The format is used as
http://www.yahoo.com
http :protocol
www :web
yahoo.com :Domain name(Host+extension)
 HTTPS
It is defined as secure version of HTTP which is
better known as Hyper Text Transfer Protocol
Secure(HTTPS)
This protocol is also used to send data between
a web browser and a website but in encrypted
form to increase security and accuracy of dat
transfer over network.
 TCP/IP
• TCP is a network protocol to send data packets over
the internet.
• The TCP works with the co-ordination of IP(Internet
Protocol).
• The IP defines the IP address of the receiver where
data packets are to be delivered.
• The TCP controls the movement of the data packets
on the transmission line for reaching safely to the
device whose IP address defined by IP.
 FTP
• It is one of the network services provided to
exchange files one computer to another.
• The working of FTP is similar to HTTP which
transfers web pages from a server to the
user’s browser.
• It is commonly used for uploading the file
from a client computer to the server and
downloading the same from server to another
client using internet.
 TELNET
• It is a protocol that allow us to connect to the
remote computers over a network.
• Using this protocol, we can perform various
tasks such as creating a folder or file, transfer
or delete a file etc.,
• It works on command line interface (CLI) where
commands are written in plain text using
keyboard.
• It is unencrypted and insecured protocol.
 POP 3
• Post Office Protocol 3 receives the main from
the server and brings it to your computer.
• Once the user linked with the main server and
tries to access his mail , the messages are
downloaded to the hard disk automatically .
• The moment downloading is over the messages
are deleted from the main server.
• POP 3 is responsible for receiving mail from the
server whereas , sending of handled by SMTP.
 SMTP
• It is a protocol used for sending and receiving the mail.
• The SMTP model is of two types:
• End-to-End Method
• Store-and-Forward Method
• The end-to-end model is used to communicate between
different organizations whereas the store and forward
method is used within an organization.
• An SMTP client who wants to send the mail will contact the
destination’s host SMTP directly, to send the mail to the
destination.
• The SMTP server will keep the mail to itself until it is
successfully copied to the receiver’s SMTP.
 VOIP
VOIP is to interact among a technology that allow
the people to interact among them through voice
calls over internet.
The emergence of broadband has enabled voice
communication with the help of specially designed
VOIP telephone connected to computers.
The advantage of calls using VOIP telephone is the
fast connection with the recipients and clear
audibility .
 PPP
• Point to Point protocol is the most commonly
used data link protocol.
• It is a protocol used to establish a direct
connection between the nodes.
• It can provide connection authentication,
transmission encryption and compression.
• PPP is used to connect telephone dial up lines
to the internet.
• Nowadays wireless hotspots are available in
some specific locations such as airports ,
hospitals etc., which allow you to connect to
the internet to enable you to use VOIP service
wirelessly.
 SIP
• The Session Initiation Protocol is a signaling
protocol that enables the Voice Over Internet
Protocol (VoIP) by defining the messages sent
between endpoints and managing the actual
elements of a call.
• SIP supports voice calls, video conferencing,
instant messaging, and media distribution.
 H.323
• H.323 is widely used in IP based
videoconferencing, Voice over Internet
Protocol (VoIP) and Internet telephony.
• Users can communicate through the Internet
and make use of a variety of products that are
H.323 standard compatible.
 IRC
• The Internet Relay Chat is a protocol used for
live interactive internal text messaging or
simultaneous conferencing.
• It is mainly designed for group communication
in discussion forums, called channels, but also
allows one-to-one communication messages
as well as chat and data transfer including file
sharing.
 WEB SERVICES
• Web Service is a software design to establish
communication between clients and their
servers.
• It allows users to perform different tasks on
internet with the help of WWW.
 WWW
• The World Wide Web is a set of protocols that
allows you to access information over internet
with the help of computer.
 HTML
• Hyper Text Markup Language is a language to
create a web site.
• The documents designed in HTML are
displayed using web browser.
• They use some special instructions called tags.
• The markup tags tells the web browser how to
display the text on the web pages.
 XML
• Extensible Markup Language is also a language to
create websites.
• It includes a set of rules to encode the document
in human as well as machine readable forms.
• It is a public standard language developed by
www consortium and is used as open source.
• Unlike HTML,It allows creating your own tags to
design the documents.
• It allow storing the data presenting it.
 WEBSITE
It is a collection of webpages containing
texts,images,audio and videos.
Each website has an address which can be entered into
the address bar of the browser to access the website.
There are 2 types of website:
Static website: This website provide mainly information
for the users where the contents do not change
frequently. It is easy to develop with simple knowledge
of HTML programming that does not require database
designing.
Dynamic Website:The webpages are dynamic in
nature.The web pages may gather information
from different data bases.
If the content in a database changes,you may
need to change in webpages too.
 WEBPAGE
Webpage refers to an electronic page designed
using HTML.
A set of webpages are grouped together to form
a website.
A webpage may contain the information in
terms of texts , images and hyperlinks.
 webservers
• A web server is a software application or
hardware device that stores, processes, and
serves web content to users over the internet.
• The devices that make queries are said to be
clients.
• When a request for a webpage is made,the
server searches the requested page.If it is
found,It will be delivered to the client,otherwise
it will send the respond as page not found.
 web browser
The web browser is an application software to
explore www (World Wide Web).
It provides an interface between the server and
the client and it requests to the server for web
documents and services.
It works as a compiler to render HTML which is
used to design a webpage.
Whenever we search for anything on the
internet, the browser loads a web page written
in HTML, including text, links, images, and other
 Web hosting
Web hosting is an online service that makes your
website’s content accessible on the internet.
When you purchase a hosting plan, you are
renting space on a physical server to store all the
website’s files and data.
Web hosts provide the hosting technology and
resources required for the effective and secure
operation of your website.
 ABBREVIATIONS
1. ARPANET-ADVANCED RESEARCH PROJECT AGENCY NETWORK
2. DoD-DEPARTMENT OF DEFENCE
3. NSFNET-NATIONAL SCIENCE FOUNDATION NETWORK
4. WWW-WORLD WIDE WEB
5. EMAIL-ELECTRONIC MAIL
6. TCP/IP-TRANSMISSION CONTROL PROTOCOL/INTERNET PROTOCOL
7. ISP-INTERNET SERVICE PROVIDER
8. PAN-PERSONAL AREA NETWORK
9. LAN-LOCAL AREA NETWORK
10. WAN-WIDE AREA NETWORK
11. MAN-METROPOLITAN AREA NETWORK
12. NIC-NETWORK INTERFACE CARD
13. PC-PERSONAL COMPUTER
14. MAC-MEDIA ACCESS CONTROL
15. IP-INTERNET PROTOCOL
16. Hz-Hertz
17. KHz-KiloHertz
18. MHz-MegaHertz
19. bps-bits per second
20. DTR-Data Transfer Rate
21. Bps-Bytes per second
22. Modem-Modulator DEModulator
23. RJ-45-Registerd Jack 45
24. WI-FI-WIRELESS FIDELITY
25. UTP-UNSHEILDED TWISTED PAIR CABLE
26. WLAN-WIRELESS LAN
27. STP-SHEILDED TWISTED PAIR CABLE
28. WI-MAX-WORLD WIDE INTEROPERALITY FOR MICROWAVE ACCESS
30. TCP-TRANSMISSION CONTROL PROTOCOL
31. FTP-FILE TRANSFER PROTOCOL
32. SMTP-SIMPLE MAIL TRANSFER PROTOCOL
33. VOIP-VOICE OVER INTERNET PROTOCOL
34. HTTP-HYPER TEXT TRANSFER PROTOCOL
35. HTTPS-HYPER TEXT TRANSFER PROTOCOL
36. IP-INTERNET PROTOCOL
37. PPP-POINT TO POINT PROTOCOL
38. POP3-POST OFFICE PROTOCOL 3
39. SIP-SESSION INITIATION PROTOCOL
40. QoS-QUALITY OF SERVICE
41. SMS-SHORT MESSAGE SERVICE
42. SIM-SUBSCRIBER IDENTITY MODULE
44. GSM-GLOBAL SYSTEM FOR MOBILE COMMUNICATION
45. CDMA-CODE DIVISION MULTIPLE ACCESS
46. MMS-MULTIMEDIA MESSAGE SERVICE
47. GPRS-GENERAL PACKET RADIO SERVICES
48. WLL-WIRELESS LOCAL LOOP
49. FDMA-FREQUENCY DIVISION MULTIPLE ACCESS
50. TDMA-TIME DIVISION MULTIPLE ACCESS
51. HTML-HYPER TEXT TRANSFER PROTOCOL
52. XML-Extensible Markup Language
53. URL-UNIFORM RESOURCE LOCATOR
54. DNS-DOMAIN NAME SYSTEM
55. IRC-INTERNET RELAY CHAT
 CHARACTERISTICS OF NETWORKS
PARAMETER PAN LAN MAN WAN
AREA COVERED UPTO 10M(SMALL UPTO 10 KM UPTO 100KM ENTIRE
AREA) (A BUILDING (A CITY COUNTRY,CONTI
OR CAMPUS) NENT OR GLOBE

NETWORKING NEGLIGIBLE INEXPENSIVE EXPENSIVE VERY EXPENSIVE

COSTS
TRANSMISSION HIGH SPEED HIGH SPEED MODERATE LOW SPEED
SPEED SPEED
ERROR RATE LOWEST LOWEST MODERATE HIGHEST
NETWORK WLAN,DONGLE LAN/ ROUTER,GATEW ROUTER,GATEWA
DEVICE USED WLAN,HUB/ AY Y
SWITCH,REPEAT
ER,MODEM

TECHNOLOGY/ INFRARED,BLUETOO ETHERNET,WI-FI OPTICAL MICROWAVE,SAT

MEDIA USED TH FIBRE,RADIOWA ELLITE
VE,MICROWAVE
TOPOLO ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
GIES
COMPARISON OF TOPOLOGIES
MESH 1.EXPANSION AND MODIFICATION IS EASY 1.HIGH EXPENSIVE
2.POINT TO POINT LINK MAKE FAULT 2.SET-UP AND MAINTENANC
IDENTIFICATION AND FAULT ISOLATION IS EASY IS VERY DIFFICULT

STAR 1.INSTALLATION AND MAINTENANCE OF N/W IS 1.MORECABLING IS

EASY REQUIREDFOR INSTALLATION
2.EASY TO DETECT FAULTS OF HUB
2.IF THE SERVER IS
SLOW,CAUSE THE ENTIRE
N/W IS SLOW

BUS 1.REQUIRES LESS CABLE LENGTH THAN A STAR FAULT IN MAIN CABLE,ENTIR
2.NODES CAN BE CONNECTED OR REMOVED N/W SHUTS DOWN
EASILY SIGNALS BECOMES WEAKER
IF NO OF NODES BECOMES
TOPOLOGIES ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
RING 1.DATA IS TRANSMITTED IN 1.TRANSMISSION SPEED
ONE DIRECTION ONLY BECOMES SLOWER WITH
AN INCREASE IN NO.OF
2.FAULT IDENTIFICATION IS NODES
EASY
3.IT CHEAPER THAN STAR 2.FAULT IN SINGLE
TOPOLOGY NODE,ENTIRE N/W TO FAIL
TREE 1.FAULT IDENTIFICATION IS 1.MAINTENANCE IS NOT
EASY EASY AND COSTS ARE HIGH
2.N/Ws can be expanded
by addition of secondary 2.CONFIGURATION IS
nodes DIFFICULT.
What is the URL?
• A URL is a global address of documents and
protocols to retrieve resource on a computer
network. URLs occur most frequently in reference
to web pages (HTTP) but can also be used for
database access using JDBC, email (mailto), file
transfer (FTP), and many other applications. The
full form of URL is Uniform Resource Locator.
.
EXAMPLE OF URL:
This example URL has a folder but no extension
https://career.guru99.com/category/heavy-indu
stries/
This example URL has no folder
https://www.guru99.com/what-is-sap.html
This example URL has no extension
https://career.guru99.com/top-33-investment-b
anking-interview-questions-answers/
What is URI?
• A URI is a string containing characters that
identify a physical or logical resource. URI
follows syntax rules to ensure uniformity.
Moreover, it also maintains extensibility via a
hierarchical naming scheme. The full form of
URI is Uniform Resource Identifier
EXAMPLE:
https://www.guru99.com/
 MAC ADDRESS
MAC Address(MEDIA ACCESS CONTROL)
A MAC address is a unique address that is assigned by
the manufacturer of the NIC Card. It is a 6-byte
address. Each byte in MAC address is separated by a
colon.
It looks like:
20:CY:01:58:4d:LK
In this address, first three bytes are manufacturer-id
and rest three bytes are card-no. The manufacturer-
id is assigned by an International Organization IEEE.
DIFFERENCE B/W XML AND HTML
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MAC ADDRESS AND IP ADDRESS