1

OUTLINE
1. Batteries
2. Batteries configuration
3. Cell voltage for various types of the batteries
4. Roadmap for battery energy storage
5. CCCV Charging
6. Battery capacity, C rates
7. Battery state of charge
8. Battery state of health
9. Various types of the battery modeling methods
10. Cell level modeling
Modeling and Simulation of Battery Bank from Cell to Pack for Electric Vehicles 2
Introduction
Anode: The electrode where oxidation (loss of electrons) occurs during discharge. Electrons flow from the anode
to the external circuit.
Cathode: The electrode where reduction (gain of electrons) occurs during discharge. Electrons return to the
cathode through the external circuit.
Electrolyte: A substance, often a liquid or gel, that allows ions to move between the anode and cathode. It serves
as a medium for the flow of electric charge.
Separator: A physical barrier that prevents direct contact between the anode and cathode, allowing ions to move
while keeping the electrodes from touching.

CHARGING PROCESS DISCHARGING

PROCESS

Modeling and Simulation of Battery Bank from Cell to Pack for Electric Vehicles 3
Source : Ding, Y., Cano, Z.P., Yu, A. et al. Automotive Li-Ion Batteries: Current Status and Future Perspectives. Electrochem. Energ. Rev. 2,
1–28 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s41918-018-0022-z14

Modeling and Simulation of Battery Bank from Cell to Pack for Electric Vehicles 4
 Ambient Temperature Proper sizing of the storage

Losses Parameter identification

Pre-mature failure prediction for

C Rate stack level architecture

State estimation under real-time

Aging conditions

Factors affecting EV battery performance Lifetime improvement under

rigorous drive conditions

Stack level health assessment

Battery modeling challenges for electric vehicle applications

Modeling and Simulation of Battery Bank from Cell to Pack for Electric Vehicles 5
Modeling and Simulation of Battery Bank from Cell to Pack for Electric Vehicles 6
LCO – Lithium cobalt
oxide battery

NCA - Lithium nickel

cobalt aluminium
oxide

NMC - Lithium-Nickel-
Manganese-Cobalt-
Oxide

LMO – Lithium-Ion
manganese oxide
battery

LFP - Lithium iron

phosphate batteries
(LiFePO4 )

LTO - lithium-titanium- Source: Miao, Yu, et al. "Current Li-ion battery technologies in electric vehicles and opportunities for
oxide battery advancements." Energies 12.6 (2019): 1074.

Modeling and Simulation of Battery Bank from Cell to Pack for Electric Vehicles 7
Battery test procedure
Constant Need of Battery Modeling :
FUDS
Current 1. Reduces development
costs,
Variable Power HPPC
2. Results in higher user
satisfaction,
DST 3. Reduces development
Performance
time,
Battery Test Procedure

NEDC 4. Encourage innovation

Safety/Abuse and flexible design

UDDS
Drive Cycle
EPA US06
Accelerated
Aging
Life cycle IDC
Baseline Life
Cycle

Modeling and Simulation of Battery Bank from Cell to Pack for Electric Vehicles 8
Drive Cycles
US06 UDDS
40 30
Velocity [m/s]

30

Velocity [m/s]
20
20
10
10

0 0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
Time [s] Time [s]
NEDC FTP75
40 30
Velocity [m/s]

30

Velocity [m/s]
20
20

10 10

0 0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
Time [s] Time [s]
Modeling and Simulation of Battery Bank from Cell to Pack for Electric Vehicles 9
CCCV Charging
Constant Current-Constant Voltage (CC-CV) charging is a common charging technique used in lithium-ion
batteries to efficiently and safely charge the battery while maintaining a balance between the charging speed and
the battery's health.
1. Constant Current (CC) Charging:
 In the CC stage, a constant current is applied to the battery module. This means that the charging current
remains constant throughout this phase.
 The purpose of the CC stage is to quickly charge the battery from a low state of charge (SOC) to a certain
voltage level. During this stage, the battery voltage increases gradually as it gets charged.

2. Constant Voltage (CV) Charging:

 Once the battery reaches a specified voltage limit (in this case, 4.1 V per cell), the charging process transitions
from CC to CV mode.
 In the CV stage, the charging voltage is held constant at the specified limit while the charging current
decreases as the battery gets closer to full capacity.
 This stage is essential to prevent overcharging the battery, as the constant voltage ensures that the battery
voltage does not exceed the safe limit.

Modeling and Simulation of Battery Bank from Cell to Pack for Electric Vehicles 10
CCCV Charging
3. Completion of Charging:
 The CV stage continues until the battery's state of charge (SOC) reaches a predetermined level, typically
around 90% in this example.
 Once the battery SOC reaches the desired level, the charging process is halted, and the battery is considered
fully charged.

4. Discharging Phase:
 After reaching full charge, the battery can be discharged using a constant current (CC) method to return its
SOC to the initial level (10% in this case).
 Discharging the battery through the CC method ensures a controlled and consistent discharge rate until the
desired SOC is achieved, completing one cycle of the charging and discharging process.

openExample('simscapebattery/
BatteryCCCVExample')

Modeling and Simulation of Battery Bank from Cell to Pack for Electric Vehicles 11
CCCV Charging
Charging current Battery State of Charge
20 100

10 80

SoC %
Amp

0 60

-10 40

0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000
Time (s) Time (s)
Battery Voltage
4.2

4
Volt

3.8

3.6

0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000

Time (s)
Modeling and Simulation of Battery Bank from Cell to Pack for Electric Vehicles 12
CCCV Charging

Modeling and Simulation of Battery Bank from Cell to Pack for Electric Vehicles 13
Battery Capacity
Battery capacity is defined as the total amount of electricity generated due to
electrochemical reactions in the battery and is expressed in ampere hours. For example,
a constant discharge current of 1 C (5 A) can be drawn from a 5 Ah battery for 1 hour.

Q .1 An automobile battery might have a 200 Ah rating. How long can this battery supply 20
amperes?

The actual ampere-hours delivered varies with battery age and condition, temperature and discharge
rate.

Modeling and Simulation of Battery Bank from Cell to Pack for Electric Vehicles 14
C RATES
A C-rate is a measure of the rate at which a battery is discharged relative to its maximum
capacity. A 1C rate means that the discharge current will discharge the entire battery in 1
hour.

C Rating Time Amp C Rating Time Amp

12 Volt, 50 Ah

1C 1Hour 1C/2 = 0.5C

2C C/5 = 0.2C
5C C/10 = 0.1C

10

Modeling and Simulation of Battery Bank from Cell to Pack for Electric Vehicles 15
12 Volt, 50 Ah Battery connected with a DC load . Load current is 10 ampere. Calculate the %SoC of
the battery after 3hr .

Total Coulombs are available in batteries are based on Ah rating

Coulombs used =

Coulombs Used
SoC ( used ) = × 100
Total coulombs

Modeling and Simulation of Battery Bank from Cell to Pack for Electric Vehicles 16
An expression of the present battery capacity as a percentage of maximum capacity. SOC is
generally calculated using current integration to determine the change in battery capacity over time.

12 Volt, 50 Ah Battery connected with a DC load . Load current is 10

ampere. Calculate the %SoC of the battery after 3hr .

Modeling and Simulation of Battery Bank from Cell to Pack for Electric Vehicles 17
Measuring State of Charge in Electric Vehicles
 Electric vehicles (EVs) provide a cleaner alternative to traditional combustion engine vehicles by
using electricity as power source.
 This alternative power source allows the EVs to reduce the reliance on fossil fuels and cut down on
greenhouse gas emissions and air pollution. EVs operate by using electric motors powered by
batteries, which are the heart of any EV.
 These batteries determine the EV range, performance, and environmental footprint. However,
managing the battery inside an EV is complex due to the inherent characteristics of the battery itself,
including the battery energy density and weight, the thermal management, aging and degradation,
and the estimation of the SOC and state of health (SOH).
 The ability to track the SOC is crucial for managing battery systems efficiently and in applications
where the battery performance and longevity are critical.

Modeling and Simulation of Battery Bank from Cell to Pack for Electric Vehicles 18
Battery Capacity
Battery capacity is defined as the total amount of electricity generated due to
electrochemical reactions in the battery and is expressed in ampere hours. For example, a
constant discharge current of 1 C (5 A) can be drawn from a 5 Ah battery for 1 hour.

Q .1 An automobile battery might have a 200 Ah rating. How long can this battery supply 20 amperes?

The actual ampere-hours delivered varies with battery age and condition, temperature and discharge
rate.

Modeling and Simulation of Battery Bank from Cell to Pack for Electric Vehicles 19
C Rates
A C-rate is a measure of the rate at which a battery is discharged relative to its maximum
capacity. A 1C rate means that the discharge current will discharge the entire battery in 1
hour.

C Rating Time Amp C Rating Time Amp

12 Volt, 50 Ah

1C 1Hour 1C/2 = 0.5C

2C C/5 = 0.2C
5C C/10 = 0.1C

10

Modeling and Simulation of Battery Bank from Cell to Pack for Electric Vehicles 20
SOH - State of Health
State of Health (SoH) is a key indicator used to Battery State of Health over Time
100
describe the overall condition of a battery, particularly

State of Health (%)

in terms of how much capacity and performance it has 75
retained compared to its original state. SoH provides a
percentage value that reflects how much usable capacity 50
the battery has left.
Current Capacity 25
SoH= ∗ 100
Nominal Capacity 0
0 200 400 600 800 1000
Battery Charging and Discharging Cycles Number of Cycles
State of Charge (SoC) %

100

75

50

25

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Time (hours)
Modeling and Simulation of Battery Bank from Cell to Pack for Electric Vehicles 21
BATTERY STATE OF CHARGE (SOC)

Remaining Capacity
SOC= ∗ 100
Total Capacity

 Battery State of Charge (SoC) is a measure that indicates the remaining energy or capacity of a
battery as a percentage of its total capacity.
 It quantifies how much charge is left in a battery relative to its full charge capacity, providing
insight into the current energy storage level.

Modeling and Simulation of Battery Bank from Cell to Pack for Electric Vehicles 22
BATTERY STATE OF CHARGE (SOC)
A 12V lithium-ion battery has a capacity of 10 Ah. Initially, the battery is fully charged (100%
SOC). During use, a current of 2 A is discharged for 2 hours. Assume ideal conditions with no
losses. Estimate the SOC of the battery after 2 hours.

The Coulomb Counting Method estimates SOC as:

𝑆𝑂𝐶 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 =𝑆𝑂𝐶 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 −

∫ 𝐼 (𝑡 ) 𝑑𝑡
∗ 100
𝑄𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑

= Initial SOC (in percentage)

: Rated capacity of the battery (Ah).

Modeling and Simulation of Battery Bank from Cell to Pack for Electric Vehicles 23
BATTERY STATE OF CHARGE (SOC)
• = 100%.
• Current I(t) = 2 A (constant current).
• Duration (t) = 2 hours.
• Battery Capacity = 10 Ah.
Calculate the Charge Withdrawn
The charge withdrawn is:
Charge Withdrawn=I(t)×t=2 A×2 hours=4 Ah

Calculate the Final SOC

𝑆𝑂𝐶 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 =𝑆𝑂𝐶 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 −

∫ 𝐼 (𝑡 ) 𝑑𝑡
∗ 100
𝑄𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 The battery’s SOC after 2 hours of
4 discharge is 60%.
𝑆𝑂𝐶 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 =1 00 − ∗ 100=60 %
10
Modeling and Simulation of Battery Bank from Cell to Pack for Electric Vehicles 24
BATTERY STATE OF CHARGE (SOC)

A 12V, 50 Ah battery is connected to a DC load. The load draws a constant current of 10 A.

• If the battery starts at 100% SOC, calculate the %SOC of the battery after 3 hours of
operation using the Coulomb Counting Method. Assume ideal conditions with no losses.

Total Coulombs are available in batteries are based on Ah rating

Coulombs used =

Coulombs Used
SoC ( used ) = × 100
Total coulombs

Modeling and Simulation of Battery Bank from Cell to Pack for Electric Vehicles 25
BATTERY STATE OF CHARGE (SOC)

An expression of the present battery capacity as a percentage of maximum capacity. SOC is

generally calculated using current integration to determine the change in battery capacity over time.

12 Volt, 50 Ah Battery connected with a DC load . Load current is

10 ampere. Calculate the %SoC of the battery after 3hr .

Modeling and Simulation of Battery Bank from Cell to Pack for Electric Vehicles 26
BATTERY STATE OF CHARGE (SOC)
12 Volt, 50 Ah Battery connected with a DC load . Load current is 10 ampere. Calculate the %SoC of
the battery after 3hr .

Total Coulombs are available in batteries are based on Ah rating

Coulombs used =

Coulombs Used
SoC ( used ) = × 100
Total coulombs

Modeling and Simulation of Battery Bank from Cell to Pack for Electric Vehicles 27
Charging time for a battery bank

you have a battery bank with a capacity of 200 Ah, and you want to charge it
from 50% to 80% SoC using a charging rate of 20 amps

(200 Ah x (80% − 50%))

Charging time ( in hours )=
20 Amp

Keep in mind that this calculation is an estimate, and the actual charging time
may vary depending on factors such as the battery chemistry, temperature, and
charging method.

Modeling and Simulation of Battery Bank from Cell to Pack for Electric Vehicles 28
SOC Estimations Techniques

Modeling and Simulation of Battery Bank from Cell to Pack for Electric Vehicles 29
Cell Load Current Profile, Voltage Behavior, SoC and Temperature Using 1RC

Modeling and Simulation of Battery Bank from Cell to Pack for Electric Vehicles 30
1RC EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT MODEL

Modeling and Simulation of Battery Bank from Cell to Pack for Electric Vehicles 31
1RC ECM MODEL PARAMETERS

SoC Breakpoints

Modeling and Simulation of Battery Bank from Cell to Pack for Electric Vehicles 32
Cell Behaviour
Battery Load Current Battery state of charge as per load current
40 100

20 75

SoC %
Amp

0 50

-20 25

-40 0
0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4
Time (s) 4 4
10 Time (s) 10
Battery voltage behaviour as per load current
4.5 Battery temperature in (°C) as per load current
35

4
30
Volt

(°C)
3.5
25

3 20
0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4
Time (s) 4
10 Time (s) 10
4

Modeling and Simulation of Battery Bank from Cell to Pack for Electric Vehicles 33
1RC ECM MODEL PARAMETERS
%% Thermal Properties % Cell mass (kg)
% Cell dimensions and sizes cell_mass = 1; % Assuming mass of the cell
cell_thickness = 0.0084; % m is 1 kg
(thickness of the cell) % Volumetric heat capacity (J/m^3/K) -
cell_width = 0.215; % m (width of the Assumed uniform throughout the cell
cell) cell_rho_Cp = 2.04E6; % Volumetric heat
cell_height = 0.220; % m (height of capacity
the cell) % Specific Heat (J/K)
% Cell surface area (m^2) % Calculating total heat capacity (Joules
cell_area = 2 * (... % Total surface per Kelvin) of the cell
area of the cell cell_Cp_heat = cell_rho_Cp * cell_volume;
cell_thickness * cell_width +... % Two % Convective heat transfer coefficient
sides with thickness * width (W/m^2/K)
cell_thickness * cell_height +... % % For natural convection, values range from
Two sides with thickness * height 5 to 25 W/m^2/K
cell_width * cell_height); % Two sides h_conv = 5;
with width * height %% Initial Conditions
% Cell volume (m^3) % Charge deficit (Ampere-hours)
cell_volume = cell_thickness * Qe_init = 15.6845; % Initial charge in the
cell_width * cell_height; cell
% Ambient temperature (K)
Modeling and Simulation of Battery Bank from Cell to Pack=for20Electric
T_init 34
Vehicles% Initial temperature
+ 273.15;
BATTERY MODELING METHODS
Models Expression Strength Weakness
Empirical Models  Simple Expression  Limited capability of
 Good Computational describing the terminal voltage
Efficiency
Electro-chemical  High accuracy of voltage  Require prior knowledge of the
Models calculation Battery
 Time consuming
Data- Driven  High accuracy of voltage  Laborious training dataset
Models calculation collection process
 do not need prier knowledge
of the battery
Electrical  Easily understand widely  Complex parameter
Equivalent used in SoC estimation identification process
Circuit Model  High accuracy

Modeling and Simulation of Battery Bank from Cell to Pack for Electric Vehicles 35
PARAMETERS ESTIMATION OF CELLS
Parameter Estimation
Method Advantages Disadvantages
Sensitive to initial guess values, may
Simple and widely used method, can estimate
Least squares fitting not converge to global minimum,
multiple parameters simultaneously
cannot handle non-linear relationships
Requires accurate battery model,
Non-linear least Can handle non-linear relationships, can
computationally intensive, may not
squares estimate uncertainty in parameters
converge to global minimum
Requires accurate battery model,
Can handle non-linear relationships, can handle
Genetic algorithm computationally intensive, may not
noise and uncertainty in measurements
converge to global minimum
Requires accurate battery model,
Particle swarm Can handle non-linear relationships, can handle computationally intensive, may not
optimization noise and uncertainty in measurements converge to global minimum,
sensitive to initial guess values

Modeling and Simulation of Battery Bank from Cell to Pack for Electric Vehicles 36
PARAMETERS ESTIMATION OF CELLS
Parameter Estimation
Method Advantages Disadvantages
Requires accurate battery model and
Can estimate uncertainty in parameters, can handle
Bayesian inference prior knowledge, computationally
noise and uncertainty in measurements
intensive
Requires accurate battery model and
Markov chain Monte Can estimate uncertainty in parameters, can handle
prior knowledge, computationally
Carlo noise and uncertainty in measurements
intensive
Can handle non-linear relationships between Requires large amounts of data for
Artificial neural
parameters, can learn from historical data, can be training, black-box model, difficult to
networks
used for real-time estimation interpret

Modeling and Simulation of Battery Bank from Cell to Pack for Electric Vehicles 37
CELL MODELING

Modeling and Simulation of Battery Bank from Cell to Pack for Electric Vehicles 38
PARAMETER ESTIMATION FLOWCHART

Modeling and Simulation of Battery Bank from Cell to Pack for Electric Vehicles 39
BATTERY EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT MODELING

Ambient Temperature Equations

T :- inside cell temperature ( oC)

-ambient temperature ( oC)
:- convection resistance ( )
:-Power dissipated (W)
:-heat capacitance ( J )
: -Actual Value
:- Predicted Value

Modeling and Simulation of Battery Bank from Cell to Pack for Electric Vehicles 40
EXPERIMENTAL WORKBENCH

Modeling and Simulation of Battery Bank from Cell to Pack for Electric Vehicles 41
=(SOC, T ) = (SOC,T) =(SOC, T) = (SOC,T)

= (SOC, T) = (SOC,T) = (SOC, T) = (SOC,T)

2. Temperature Equations T :- inside cell temperature ( oC)

= (SOC, T) = (SOC,T) = (SOC,T)
-ambient temperature ( oC)= (SOC,T)
:- convection resistance ( )
:-Power dissipated (W)
:-heat capacitance ( J )
: -Actual Value
:- Predicted Value

Modeling and Simulation of Battery Bank from Cell to Pack for Electric Vehicles 42
Error Analysis

MAD: Mean Absolute Deviation MSE : Mean Squared Error

RMSE: Root Mean Squared Error MAPE: Mean Absolute Percentage Error
%

: -Actual Value :- Predicted Value

Modeling and Simulation of Battery Bank from Cell to Pack for Electric Vehicles 43
Initial Equations for Battery Modeling

𝑅1 (SOC , T )
𝐼𝐿 𝑅 0 (SOC ,T )
𝐶 1 (SOC , T )
+
+ 𝑉-
+
-𝑉 1 𝑉 𝑇1
𝑜𝑐𝑣
-

Modeling and Simulation of Battery Bank from Cell to Pack for Electric Vehicles 44
Modeling and Simulation of Battery Bank from Cell to Pack for Electric Vehicles 45
Various Equivalent Circuit Models

Modeling and Simulation of Battery Bank from Cell to Pack for Electric Vehicles 46
Modeling and Simulation of Battery Bank from Cell to Pack for Electric Vehicles 47
Parameters Estimation

Modeling and Simulation of Battery Bank from Cell to Pack for Electric Vehicles 48
ESTIMATED PAREMETERS

Modeling and Simulation of Battery Bank from Cell to Pack for Electric Vehicles 49
Source: Source:
https://in.mathworks.com/help/simscape/ug/lithium-battery-cell- https://www.forbes.com/sites/qai/2022/09/24/growth-sector-electric
one-rc-branch-equivalent-circuit.html -vehicles-sales-and-the-new-electric-economy/?sh=4271b1a6143a

Modeling and Simulation of Battery Bank from Cell to Pack for Electric Vehicles 50
DRIVE CYCLES
Current (A) Current (A) Current (A) Current (A)

2.1
0.0 This test consists of different dynamic current profiles like
-2.1
FUDS 1. FUDS :- Federal Urban Driving Schedule;
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
2.2 2. DST :- Dynamic stress test;
0.0
-2.2 DST 3. BJDST :- Beijing Dynamic Stress Test;
1
0 180 360 540 720 900
4. US06 :- Highway Driving Schedule;
0
-1
BJDST
-2
0 180 360 540 720 900
2 US06
0
-2
-4
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Time (s)

Source:
https://www.forbes.com/sites/qai/2022/09/24/growth-sector-electric-vehicles-sales-and-the-new-electric-economy/
?sh=4271b1a6143a
Modeling and Simulation of Battery Bank from Cell to Pack for Electric Vehicles 51
HARDWARE RESULTS COMPARED WITH SIMULATION RESULTS
4.2 3.9 4.0
(a). 1RC DST T = 0 C Experiment (b). 1RC FUDS T = 25 C Experiment (b). 1RC BJDST T = 25 C Experiment
4.0 Simulation 3.8 Simulation 3.9 Simulation
3.8
3.8

Voltage (V)
3.7
Voltage (V)

3.7

Voltage (V)
3.6 3.6 3.6
3.5
3.4 3.5
3.4
3.2 3.4 3.3
3.0 3.3 3.2
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 0 200 400 600 800 1000 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000
Time (s) Time (s) Time (s)

4.2 4.1
4.2 (a). 2RC DST T = 0 C (a). 3RC DST T = 0 C Experiment (a). 3RC US06 T = 0 C Experiment
Experiment 4.0 4.0
Simulation Simulation Simulation
4.0

Voltage (V)
3.8 3.9
Voltage (V)

3.8

Voltage (V)
3.6 3.8
3.6 3.4 3.7
3.4 3.2 3.6
3.2
3.0 3.5
3.0 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 3.4
Time (s) Time (s) 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
Time (s)

Modeling and Simulation of Battery Bank from Cell to Pack for Electric Vehicles 52
Modeling and Simulation of Battery Bank from Cell to Pack for Electric Vehicles 53
Modeling and Simulation of Battery Bank from Cell to Pack for Electric Vehicles 54