Introduction

Database System Concepts, 7th Ed.

©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
See www.db-book.com for conditions on re-use
 Database Applications Examples

 Enterprise Information
• Sales: customers, products, purchases
• Accounting: payments, receipts, assets
• Human Resources: Information about employees, salaries, payroll
taxes.
 Manufacturing: management of production, inventory, orders, supply
chain.
 Banking and finance
• customer information, accounts, loans, and banking transactions.
• Credit card transactions
• Finance: sales and purchases of financial instruments (e.g., stocks
and bonds; storing real-time market data
 Universities: registration, grades

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 Database Applications Examples (Cont.)

 Airlines: reservations, schedules

 Telecommunication: records of calls, texts, and data usage, generating
monthly bills, maintaining balances on prepaid calling cards
 Web-based services
• Online retailers: order tracking, customized recommendations
• Online advertisements
 Document databases
 Navigation systems: For maintaining the locations of varies places of
interest along with the exact routes of roads, train systems, buses, etc.

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 1.5 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Purpose of Database Systems

In the early days, database applications were built directly on top of file
systems, which leads to:
 Data redundancy and inconsistency: data is stored in multiple file
formats resulting induplication of information in different files
 Difficulty in accessing data
• Need to write a new program to carry out each new task
 Data isolation
• Multiple files and formats
 Integrity problems
• Integrity constraints (e.g., account balance > 0) become “buried”
in program code rather than being stated explicitly
• Hard to add new constraints or change existing ones

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 Purpose of Database Systems (Cont.)

 Atomicity of updates
• Failures may leave database in an inconsistent state with partial
updates carried out
• Example: Transfer of funds from one account to another should either
complete or not happen at all
 Concurrent access by multiple users
• Concurrent access needed for performance
• Uncontrolled concurrent accesses can lead to inconsistencies
 Ex: Two people reading a balance (say 100) and updating it by
withdrawing money (say 50 each) at the same time
 Security problems
• Hard to provide user access to some, but not all, data

Database systems offer solutions to all the above problems

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 1.7 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Data Models
 A collection of tools for describing
• Data
• Data relationships
• Data semantics
• Data constraints
 Relational model
 Entity-Relationship data model (mainly for database design)
 Object-based data models (Object-oriented and Object-relational)
 Semi-structured data model (XML)
 Other older models:
• Network model
• Hierarchical model

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 Relational Model

 All the data is stored in various tables.

 Example of tabular data in the relational model

Columns

Rows

Ted Codd
Turing Award 1981

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 A Sample Relational Database

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 View of Data

An architecture for a database system

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 Instances and Schemas

 Similar to types and variables in programming languages

 Logical Schema – the overall logical structure of the database
• Example: The database consists of information about a set of
customers and accounts in a bank and the relationship between them.
• 1 Customer may have 1 account or the same customer may have 2 or
more accounts.
 Physical schema – the overall physical structure of the database.

 Instance – the actual content of the database at a particular point in time

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 Physical Data Independence

 Physical Data Independence – the ability to modify the physical schema

without changing the logical schema
• Applications depend on the logical schema
• In general, the interfaces between the various levels and
components should be well defined so that changes in some parts do
not seriously influence others.

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 1.16 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Data Definition Language (DDL)

 DDL commands are used to define and manage database structures

and schema.
Example: create table instructor (
ID char(5),
name varchar(20),
dept_name varchar(20),
salary numeric(8,2))
ALTER: Modifies existing database objects.
DROP: Deletes existing database objects.
TRUNCATE: Removes all records from a table but retains the table
structure.
 DDL compiler generates a set of table templates stored in a data
dictionary
 Data dictionary contains metadata (i.e., data about data)
• Database schema
• Integrity constraints
 Primary key (ID uniquely identifies instructors)

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 Data Manipulation Language (DML)

 Language for accessing and updating the data organized by the

appropriate data model
• DML also known as query language
 There are basically two types of data-manipulation language
• Procedural DML -- require a user to specify what data are needed
and how to get those data.
• Declarative DML -- require a user to specify what data are needed
without specifying how to get those data.

• SELECT: Retrieves data from one or more tables.

• INSERT: Adds new records to a table.
• UPDATE: Modifies existing records in a table.
• DELETE: Removes existing records from a table.

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 SQL Query Language

 SQL query language is nonprocedural. A query takes as input several

tables (possibly only one) and always returns a single table.
 Example to find all instructors in Comp. Sci. dept
query
select name
from instructor
where dept_name = 'Comp. Sci.'

 To be able to compute complex functions SQL is usually embedded in

some higher-level language

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 Database Design

The process of designing the general structure of the database:

 Logical Design focuses on the abstract structure of the data and how
different entities relate to each other.
 Physical Design – Deciding on the physical layout of the database. It
deals with the implementation of logical design in a specific DBMS,
including storage details, indexes, and optimization for performance.

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 Database Engine

 A database system is partitioned into modules that deal with each of the
responsibilities of the overall system.
 The functional components of a database system can be divided into
• The storage manager,
• The query processor component,
• The transaction management component.

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 Storage Manager
 A program module that provides the interface between the low-level data
stored in the database and the application programs and queries
submitted to the system.
 The storage manager is responsible for the following tasks:
• Interaction with the OS file manager
• Efficient storing, retrieving, and updating of data
 The storage manager components include:
• Authorization and integrity manager
• Transaction manager
• File manager
• Buffer manager

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 Storage Manager (Cont.)
 The storage manager implements several data structures as part of the
physical system implementation:
• Data files -- store the database itself
• Data dictionary -- stores metadata about the structure of the
database, in particular the schema of the database.
• Indices -- can provide fast access to data items. A database index
provides pointers to those data items that hold a particular value.

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 Query Processor

 The query processor components include:

• DDL interpreter- A DDL interpreter processes and executes DDL
commands. It interprets the DDL statements and performs the
necessary actions to create, alter, or drop database structures.

• DML compiler-DML compiler processes DML commands. It compiles

DML statements into a form that can be executed by the DBMS to
perform data manipulation tasks.

• Query evaluation engine -- executes low-level instructions generated

by the DML compiler.

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 Query Processing

1. Parsing and translation

2. Optimization
3. Evaluation

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 Transaction Management

 A transaction is a collection of operations that performs a single logical

function in a database application
 Transaction-management component ensures that the database
remains in a consistent (correct) state despite system failures (e.g.,
power failures and operating system crashes) and transaction failures.
 Concurrency-control manager controls the interaction among the
concurrent transactions, to ensure the consistency of the database.

BEGIN TRANSACTION;

UPDATE accounts SET balance = balance - 100 WHERE account_id = 'A';

-- If this fails, the transaction will be rolled back.

UPDATE accounts SET balance = balance + 100 WHERE account_id = 'B';

-- If this fails, the transaction will be rolled back.

COMMIT;
-- If both updates are successful, the transaction is committed.
-- If any update fails, the transaction is rolled back.
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 Database Architecture

 Centralized databases
• One to a few cores, shared memory
 Client-server,
• One server machine executes work on behalf of multiple client
machines.
 Parallel databases
• Many core shared memory
• Shared disk
• Shared nothing
 Distributed databases
• Geographical distribution
• Schema/data heterogeneity

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 Database Architecture
(Centralized/Shared-Memory)

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 Database Applications

Database applications are usually partitioned into two or three parts

 Two-tier architecture -- the application resides at the client machine,
where it invokes database system functionality at the server machine
 Three-tier architecture -- the client machine acts as a front end and
does not contain any direct database calls.
• The client end communicates with an application server, usually
through a forms interface.
• The application server in turn communicates with a database
system to access data.

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 Two-tier and three-tier architectures

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 Database Users

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 Database Administrator

A person who has central control over the system is called a database
administrator (DBA). Functions of a DBA include:
 Schema definition
 Storage structure and access-method definition
 Schema and physical-organization modification
 Granting of authorization for data access
 Routine maintenance
 Periodically backing up the database
 Ensuring that enough free disk space is available for normal
operations, and upgrading disk space as required
 Monitoring jobs running on the database

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 1.32 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan