Robbins & Judge

Organizational Behavior
Chapter
7
16th Edition

Motivation - Concepts

Luong Thu Ha, PhD

© 2015 Prentice-Hall Inc. All rights reserved. 4-1

Chapter Learning Objectives

• After studying this chapter, you should be able to:

• Describe the three elements of motivation.

• Identify four early theories of motivation and evaluate their applicability

today.

• Introduce contemporary theories of motivation

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1. Defining Motivation

The result of the interaction between the individual

and the situation.

•The processes that account for an individual’s

intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward
attaining a goal – specifically, an organizational goal.

•Three key elements:

• Intensity – how hard a person tries
• Direction – effort that is channeled toward, and
consistent with, organizational goals
• Persistence – how long a person can maintain effort
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2. Early Theories of Motivation

These early theories may not be valid, but they do

form the basis for contemporary theories and are
still used by practicing managers.

•Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory

o Alderfer’s ERG (Existence, Relatedness, and Growth)
•McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y
•Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
•McClelland’s Theory of Needs
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2.1. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

There is a hierarchy of five needs. As each need is substantially satisfied, the next need
becomes dominant.

Assumptions Self-Actualization
• Individuals cannot move to the next higher
Higher Order Esteem level until all needs at the current (lower) level
Internal are satisfied
Social • Must move in hierarchical order

Lower Order Safety

External Physiological

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2.2. McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y

• Two distinct views of human beings: Theory X (basically negative) and

Theory Y (positive).
• Managers used a set of assumptions based on their view
• The assumptions molded their behavior toward employees
Theory X Theory Y

• Workers have little • Workers are self-

ambition directed
• Dislike work • Enjoy work
• Avoid responsibility • Accept responsibility

• No empirical evidence to support this theory.

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2.3. Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
Key Point: Satisfaction and dissatisfaction are not opposites but separate constructs

Hygiene
Motivators
Factors

Extrinsic and Company Intrinsic and

Growth
Policies
Related to Related to
Dissatisfaction Satisfaction
Salary Responsibility

Work
Achievement
Conditions

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2.4. McClelland’s Three Needs Theory

• Need for Achievement (nAch)

o The drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of standards, to strive to
succeed
• Need for Power (nPow)
o The need to make others behave in a way that they would not have behaved
otherwise
• Need for Affiliation (nAff)
o The desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationships
• People have varying levels of each of the three needs.
o Hard to measure

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3. Contemporary Theories of Motivation
• Cognitive Evaluation Theory:
• Rewarding tends to decrease the overall level of motivation

• Locke’s Goal-Setting Theory

o Management by Objectives (MBO)

• Bandura’s Self-Efficacy Theory

o Also known as Social Cognitive Theory or Social Learning
Theory
o An individual’s belief that he or she is capable of performing
a task.
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Contemporary Theories of Motivation
• Reinforcement Theory:
• Similar to Goal-Setting Theory but focused on a behavioral
approach rather than a cognitive one.

• Adam’s Equity Theory:

• Employees compare their ratios of outcomes-to-inputs of
relevant others.

• Vroom’s Expectancy Theory:

• Act will be followed by a given outcome and on the
attractiveness of the outcome to the individual

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Robbins & Judge

Organizational Behavior
Chapter
8
16th Edition

Motivation:
From Concepts to Application

Luong Thu Ha, PhD

© 2015 Prentice-Hall Inc. All rights reserved. 4-11

Chapter Learning Objectives
• After studying this chapter, you should be able to:

• Describe the Job Characteristics Model and evaluate the way it motivates
by changing the work environment.

• Compare and contrast the three main ways jobs can be redesigned.

• Explain how job design can motive employees.

• Describe how employee involvement measures can motivate employees.

• Demonstrate how the different types of variable-pay programs can increase

employee motivation.
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1. Motivation by Job Design: The JCM
• Job Characteristics Model (JCM)
o Hackman and Oldham’s concept that any job can be described
through five core job dimensions:

 Skill variety – Requirements for different tasks in the job.

 Task identity – Completion of a whole piece of work.
 Task significance – The job’s impact on others.
 Autonomy – Level of discretion in decision making.
 Feedback – Amount of direct and clear information on performance.

o The way elements in a job are organized (job design) impacts

motivation, satisfaction, and performance.

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The Job Characteristics Model

Employee growth-need strength moderates the relationships.

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Motivating Potential Score (MPS)
• Five dimensions combined into a single predictive index of
motivation.
o People who work on jobs with high core dimensions are generally more
motivated, satisfied, and productive.
o Job dimensions operate through the psychological states in influencing
personal and work outcome variables rather than influencing them
directly.

• While the JCM framework is supported by research, the MPS

model isn’t practical and doesn’t work well.
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How Can Jobs Be Redesigned?
• Job Rotation
• The periodic shifting of a worker from
one task to another

• Job Enlargement
• The horizontal expansion of jobs

• Job Enrichment
• The vertical expansion of jobs

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Guidelines for Enriching a Job

Source: J.R. Hackman and J.L. Suttle, eds., Improving Life at Work (Glenview, IL: Scott Foresman, 1977), p. 138.

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2. Employee Involvement

A participative process that uses the input of employees to increase

their commitment to the organization’s success.

• By increasing worker autonomy and control over work lives

(involvement), organizations:
o Increase employee motivation
o Gain greater organizational commitment
o Experience greater worker productivity
o Observe higher levels of job satisfaction

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Types of Employee Involvement
Programs
• Participative Management
o Subordinates share a significant degree of decision-making power with their
immediate superiors
• Representative Participation
o Works councils: Groups of nominated or elected employees who must be
consulted for any personnel decisions
o Board representative: An employee sits on a company’s board of directors and
represents the interests of the firm’s employees

• Quality Circle
o A work group of employees who meet regularly to discuss their quality problems,
investigate causes, recommend solutions, and take corrective actions
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3. Major Strategic Reward Decisions

3.1. What to pay? (Pay structure)

3.2. How to pay individuals?

(Variable pay plans and Skill-based pay plans)

3.3. How to build recognition programs?

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3.1. What to Pay – Pay Structure

• Internal equity
o The worth of the job to the organization
o Determined by job evaluations
• External equity
o The competitiveness of the company’s pay relative to pay
elsewhere in the industry
o Determined through pay surveys
• Choose organizational position
o Pay leaders
 Greater employee loyalty
 Attracts better-quality employees
o Pay laggards – accept high turnover for low hourly costs
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3.2. How to Pay - Variable Pay
Programs
• A portion of an employee’s pay is based on some individual and/or organizational
measure of performance

• Types of Variable Pay Programs

 Piece Rate:
• Workers are paid a fixed sum for each unit of production completed
• Weakness: not feasible for many jobs
 Merit-Based:
• Based on performance appraisal ratings
• Gap increasing between average and top-performers
• Weaknesses: validity of system based on annual appraisals, pay pool can be small, unions strongly resist
 Bonuses:
• Rewards recent performance
• Weakness: employees consider this pay

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How to Pay - Skill-Based Pay Programs
 Also known as competency- or knowledge-based pay - sets pay
based on skills or number of jobs an employee can perform

• Types of Skill-Based Programs:

Profit Sharing:
Organization-wide programs that distribute compensation based on some
established formula designed around a company’s profitability
Gain Sharing:
An incentive plan in which improvements in group productivity determine
the total amount of money that is allocated
Employee Stock Ownership Plans (ESOPs)
Company-established benefit plans in which employees acquire stock as part
of their benefits
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Evaluation of Variable and Skill-based
Pay
To some extent, variable pay does increase motivation
and productivity

• Benefits of Skill-based Pay Plans

o Provide staffing flexibility
o Facilitate communication across the organization
o Lessen “protection of territory” behaviors
o Meet the needs of employees for advancement
o Lead to performance improvements
• Drawbacks:
o Lack of additional learning opportunities
o Continuing to pay employees for obsolete skills
o Paying for skills of no immediate use to the organization
o Paying for a skill, not for performance of the skill
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3.3. How to Build Recognition Programs

• Intrinsic Rewards: Stimulate Intrinsic Motivation

• Personal attention given to employee
• Approval and appreciation for a job well done
• Growing in popularity and usage
• Benefits of Programs
• Fulfill employees’ desire for recognition
• Inexpensive to implement
• Encourage repetition of desired behaviors
• Drawbacks of Programs
• Susceptible to manipulation by management
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