Chapter 9: Virtual Memory

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Chapter 9: Virtual Memory
 Background
 Demand Paging
 Copy-on-Write
 Page Replacement
 Allocation of Frames
 Thrashing
 Memory-Mapped Files
 Allocating Kernel Memory
 Other Considerations
 Operating-System Examples

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.2 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Objectives

 To describe the benefits of a virtual memory system

 To explain the concepts of demand paging, page-replacement
algorithms, and allocation of page frames
 To discuss the principle of the working-set model
 To examine the relationship between shared memory and
memory-mapped files
 To explore how kernel memory is managed

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.3 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Background
 Code needs to be in memory to execute, but entire program rarely
used
 Error code, unusual routines, large data structures
 Entire program code not needed at same time
 Consider ability to execute partially-loaded program
 Program no longer constrained by limits of physical memory
 Each program takes less memory while running -> more
programs run at the same time
 Increased CPU utilization and throughput with no increase
in response time or turnaround time
 Less I/O needed to load or swap programs into memory ->
each user program runs faster

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.4 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Background (Cont.)
 Virtual memory – separation of user logical memory from
physical memory
 Only part of the program needs to be in memory for execution
 Logical address space can therefore be much larger than physical
address space
 Allows address spaces to be shared by several processes
 Allows for more efficient process creation
 More programs running concurrently
 Less I/O needed to load or swap processes

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.5 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Background (Cont.)
 Virtual address space – logical view of how process is stored
in memory
 Usually start at address 0, contiguous addresses until end of
space
 Meanwhile, physical memory organized in page frames
 MMU must map logical to physical
 Virtual memory can be implemented via:
 Demand paging
 Demand segmentation

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.6 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Virtual Memory That is Larger Than Physical Memory

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.7 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Virtual-address Space
 Usually design logical address space for
stack to start at Max logical address and
grow “down” while heap grows “up”
 Maximizes address space use
 Unused address space between
the two is hole
 No physical memory needed
until heap or stack grows to a
given new page
 Enables sparse address spaces with
holes left for growth, dynamically linked
libraries, etc
 System libraries shared via mapping into
virtual address space
 Shared memory by mapping pages read-
write into virtual address space
 Pages can be shared during fork(),
speeding process creation

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.8 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Shared Library Using Virtual Memory

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.9 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Demand Paging
 Could bring entire process into memory
at load time
 Or bring a page into memory only when
it is needed
 Less I/O needed, no unnecessary
I/O
 Less memory needed
 Faster response
 More users
 Similar to paging system with swapping
(diagram on right)
 Page is needed  reference to it
 invalid reference  abort
 not-in-memory  bring to memory
 Lazy swapper – never swaps a page
into memory unless page will be needed
 Swapper that deals with pages is a
pager

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.10 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Basic Concepts
 With swapping, pager guesses which pages will be used before
swapping out again
 Instead, pager brings in only those pages into memory
 How to determine that set of pages?
 Need new MMU functionality to implement demand paging
 If pages needed are already memory resident
 No difference from non demand-paging
 If page needed and not memory resident
 Need to detect and load the page into memory from storage
 Without changing program behavior
 Without programmer needing to change code

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.11 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Valid-Invalid Bit
 With each page table entry a valid–invalid bit is associated
(v  in-memory – memory resident, i  not-in-memory)
 Initially valid–invalid bit is set to i on all entries
 Example of a page table snapshot:

 During MMU address translation, if valid–invalid bit in page table

entry is i  page fault

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.12 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Page Table When Some Pages Are Not in Main Memory

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.13 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Page Fault

 If there is a reference to a page, first reference to that page will

trap to operating system:
page fault
1. Operating system looks at another table to decide:
 Invalid reference  abort
 Just not in memory
2. Find free frame
3. Swap page into frame via scheduled disk operation
4. Reset tables to indicate page now in memory
Set validation bit = v
5. Restart the instruction that caused the page fault

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.14 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Steps in Handling a Page Fault

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.15 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Performance of Demand Paging
 Stages in Demand Paging (worse case)
1. Trap to the operating system
2. Save the user registers and process state
3. Determine that the interrupt was a page fault
4. Check that the page reference was legal and determine the location of the page on the disk
5. Issue a read from the disk to a free frame:
1. Wait in a queue for this device until the read request is serviced
2. Wait for the device seek and/or latency time
3. Begin the transfer of the page to a free frame
6. While waiting, allocate the CPU to some other user
7. Receive an interrupt from the disk I/O subsystem (I/O completed)
8. Save the registers and process state for the other user
9. Determine that the interrupt was from the disk
10. Correct the page table and other tables to show page is now in memory
11. Wait for the CPU to be allocated to this process again
12. Restore the user registers, process state, and new page table, and then resume the
interrupted instruction

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.16 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Performance of Demand Paging (Cont.)
 Three major activities
 Service the interrupt – careful coding means just several hundred instructions
needed
 Read the page – lots of time
 Restart the process – again just a small amount of time
 Page Fault Rate 0  p  1
 if p = 0 no page faults
 if p = 1, every reference is a fault
 Effective Access Time (EAT)
EAT = (1 – p) x memory access
+ p (page fault overhead
+ swap page out
+ swap page in )

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.17 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Demand Paging Example
 Memory access time = 200 nanoseconds
 Average page-fault service time = 8 milliseconds
 EAT = (1 – p) x 200 + p (8 milliseconds)
= (1 – p x 200 + p x 8,000,000
= 200 + p x 7,999,800
 If one access out of 1,000 causes a page fault, then
EAT = 8.2 microseconds.
This is a slowdown by a factor of 40!!
 If want performance degradation < 10 percent
 220 > 200 + 7,999,800 x p
20 > 7,999,800 x p
 p < .0000025
 < one page fault in every 400,000 memory accesses

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.18 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Demand Paging Optimizations
 Swap space I/O faster than file system I/O even if on the same device
 Swap allocated in larger chunks, less management needed than file
system
 Copy entire process image to swap space at process load time
 Then page in and out of swap space
 Used in older BSD Unix
 Demand page in from program binary on disk, but discard rather than paging
out when freeing frame
 Used in Solaris and current BSD
 Still need to write to swap space
 Pages not associated with a file (like stack and heap) – anonymous
memory
 Pages modified in memory but not yet written back to the file system
 Mobile systems
 Typically don’t support swapping
 Instead, demand page from file system and reclaim read-only pages
(such as code)

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.19 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Copy-on-Write
 Copy-on-Write (COW) allows both parent and child processes to initially
share the same pages in memory
 If either process modifies a shared page, only then is the page copied
 COW allows more efficient process creation as only modified pages are
copied
 In general, free pages are allocated from a pool of zero-fill-on-demand
pages
 Pool should always have free frames for fast demand page execution
 Don’t want to have to free a frame as well as other processing on page
fault
 Why zero-out a page before allocating it?
 vfork() variation on fork() system call has parent suspend and child
using copy-on-write address space of parent
 Designed to have child call exec()
 Very efficient

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.20 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Before Process 1 Modifies Page C

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.21 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 After Process 1 Modifies Page C

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 What Happens if There is no Free Frame?

 Used up by process pages

 Also in demand from the kernel, I/O buffers, etc
 How much to allocate to each?
 Page replacement – find some page in memory, but not really in
use, page it out
 Algorithm – terminate? swap out? replace the page?
 Performance – want an algorithm which will result in minimum
number of page faults
 Same page may be brought into memory several times

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.23 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Page Replacement

 Prevent over-allocation of memory by modifying

page-fault service routine to include page
replacement

 Use modify (dirty) bit to reduce overhead of page

transfers – only modified pages are written to disk

 Page replacement completes separation between

logical memory and physical memory – large virtual
memory can be provided on a smaller physical
memory

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.24 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Need For Page Replacement

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.25 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Basic Page Replacement
1. Find the location of the desired page on disk

2. Find a free frame:

- If there is a free frame, use it
- If there is no free frame, use a page replacement algorithm to
select a victim frame
- Write victim frame to disk if dirty

3. Bring the desired page into the (newly) free frame; update the page
and frame tables

4. Continue the process by restarting the instruction that caused the trap

Note now potentially 2 page transfers for page fault – increasing EAT

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.26 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Page Replacement

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.27 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Page and Frame Replacement Algorithms

 Frame-allocation algorithm determines

 How many frames to give each process
 Which frames to replace
 Page-replacement algorithm
 Want lowest page-fault rate on both first access and re-access
 Evaluate algorithm by running it on a particular string of memory
references (reference string) and computing the number of page
faults on that string
 String is just page numbers, not full addresses
 Repeated access to the same page does not cause a page fault
 Results depend on number of frames available
 In all our examples, the reference string of referenced page
numbers is
7,0,1,2,0,3,0,4,2,3,0,3,0,3,2,1,2,0,1,7,0,1

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.28 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Graph of Page Faults Versus The Number of Frames

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 First-In-First-Out (FIFO) Algorithm
 Reference string: 7,0,1,2,0,3,0,4,2,3,0,3,0,3,2,1,2,0,1,7,0,1
 3 frames (3 pages can be in memory at a time per process)

15 page faults
 Can vary by reference string: consider 1,2,3,4,1,2,5,1,2,3,4,5
 Adding more frames can cause more page faults!
 Belady’s Anomaly
 How to track ages of pages?
 Just use a FIFO queue

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.30 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 FIFO Illustrating Belady’s Anomaly

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.31 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Optimal Algorithm
 Replace page that will not be used for longest period of time
 9 is optimal for the example
 How do you know this?
 Can’t read the future
 Used for measuring how well your algorithm performs

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.32 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Least Recently Used (LRU) Algorithm
 Use past knowledge rather than future
 Replace page that has not been used in the most amount of time
 Associate time of last use with each page

 12 faults – better than FIFO but worse than OPT

 Generally good algorithm and frequently used
 But how to implement?

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.33 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 LRU Algorithm (Cont.)
 Counter implementation
 Every page entry has a counter; every time page is referenced
through this entry, copy the clock into the counter
 When a page needs to be changed, look at the counters to find
smallest value
 Search through table needed
 Stack implementation
 Keep a stack of page numbers in a double link form:
 Page referenced:
 move it to the top
 requires 6 pointers to be changed
 But each update more expensive
 No search for replacement
 LRU and OPT are cases of stack algorithms that don’t have
Belady’s Anomaly

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.34 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Use Of A Stack to Record Most Recent Page References

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.35 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Thrashing
 If a process does not have “enough” pages, the page-fault rate is
very high
 Page fault to get page
 Replace existing frame
 But quickly need replaced frame back
 This leads to:
 Low CPU utilization
 Operating system thinking that it needs to increase the
degree of multiprogramming
 Another process added to the system

 Thrashing  a process is busy swapping pages in and out

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.36 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Thrashing (Cont.)

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.37 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Demand Paging and Thrashing
 Why does demand paging work?
Locality model
 Process migrates from one locality to another
 Localities may overlap

 Why does thrashing occur?

 size of locality > total memory size
 Limit effects by using local or priority page replacement

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.38 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Locality In A Memory-Reference Pattern

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.39 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 End of Chapter 9

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Chapter 10: Mass-Storage
Systems

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Chapter 10: Mass-Storage Systems
 Overview of Mass Storage Structure
 Disk Structure
 Disk Attachment
 Disk Scheduling
 Disk Management
 Swap-Space Management
 RAID Structure
 Stable-Storage Implementation

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.42 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Objectives
 To describe the physical structure of secondary storage devices
and its effects on the uses of the devices
 To explain the performance characteristics of mass-storage
devices
 To evaluate disk scheduling algorithms
 To discuss operating-system services provided for mass storage,
including RAID

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.43 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Overview of Mass Storage Structure
 Magnetic disks provide bulk of secondary storage of modern computers
 Drives rotate at 60 to 250 times per second
 Transfer rate is rate at which data flow between drive and computer
 Positioning time (random-access time) is time to move disk arm to
desired cylinder (seek time) and time for desired sector to rotate
under the disk head (rotational latency)
 Head crash results from disk head making contact with the disk
surface -- That’s bad
 Disks can be removable
 Drive attached to computer via I/O bus
 Busses vary, including EIDE, ATA, SATA, USB, Fibre Channel,
SCSI, SAS, Firewire
 Host controller in computer uses bus to talk to disk controller built
into drive or storage array

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.44 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Moving-head Disk Mechanism

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.45 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Hard Disks
 Platters range from .85” to 14” (historically)
 Commonly 3.5”, 2.5”, and 1.8”
 Range from 30GB to 3TB per drive
 Performance
 Transfer Rate – theoretical – 6 Gb/sec
 Effective Transfer Rate – real –
1Gb/sec
 Seek time from 3ms to 12ms – 9ms
common for desktop drives
 Average seek time measured or
calculated based on 1/3 of tracks
 Latency based on spindle speed
 1 / (RPM / 60) = 60 / RPM (From Wikipedia)
 Average latency = ½ latency

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.46 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Hard Disk Performance
 Access Latency = Average access time = average seek time +
average latency
 For fastest disk 3ms + 2ms = 5ms
 For slow disk 9ms + 5.56ms = 14.56ms
 Average I/O time = average access time + (amount to transfer /
transfer rate) + controller overhead
 For example to transfer a 4KB block on a 7200 RPM disk with a
5ms average seek time, 1Gb/sec transfer rate with a .1ms
controller overhead =
 5ms + 4.17ms + 0.1ms + transfer time =
 Transfer time = 4KB / 1Gb/s * 8Gb / GB * 1GB / 10242KB =
32 / (10242) = 0.031 ms
 Average I/O time for 4KB block = 9.27ms + .031ms =
9.301ms

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.47 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 The First Commercial Disk Drive

1956
IBM RAMDAC computer
included the IBM Model
350 disk storage system

5M (7 bit) characters
50 x 24” platters
Access time = < 1 second

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.48 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Disk Scheduling
 The operating system is responsible for using hardware
efficiently — for the disk drives, this means having a fast
access time and disk bandwidth
 Minimize seek time
 Seek time  seek distance
 Disk bandwidth is the total number of bytes transferred,
divided by the total time between the first request for service
and the completion of the last transfer

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.49 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Disk Scheduling (Cont.)
 There are many sources of disk I/O request
 OS
 System processes
 Users processes
 I/O request includes input or output mode, disk address, memory
address, number of sectors to transfer
 OS maintains queue of requests, per disk or device
 Idle disk can immediately work on I/O request, busy disk means
work must queue
 Optimization algorithms only make sense when a queue exists

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.50 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Disk Scheduling (Cont.)
 Note that drive controllers have small buffers and can manage a
queue of I/O requests (of varying “depth”)
 Several algorithms exist to schedule the servicing of disk I/O
requests
 The analysis is true for one or many platters
 We illustrate scheduling algorithms with a request queue (0-199)

98, 183, 37, 122, 14, 124, 65, 67

Head pointer 53

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.51 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 FCFS
Illustration shows total head movement of 640 cylinders

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.52 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 SSTF
 Shortest Seek Time First selects the request with the minimum
seek time from the current head position
 SSTF scheduling is a form of SJF scheduling; may cause
starvation of some requests
 Illustration shows total head movement of 236 cylinders

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.53 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 SCAN
 The disk arm starts at one end of the disk, and moves toward the
other end, servicing requests until it gets to the other end of the
disk, where the head movement is reversed and servicing
continues.
 SCAN algorithm Sometimes called the elevator algorithm
 Illustration shows total head movement of 208 cylinders
 But note that if requests are uniformly dense, largest density at
other end of disk and those wait the longest

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.54 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 SCAN (Cont.)

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.55 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 C-SCAN
 Provides a more uniform wait time than SCAN
 The head moves from one end of the disk to the other, servicing
requests as it goes
 When it reaches the other end, however, it immediately
returns to the beginning of the disk, without servicing any
requests on the return trip
 Treats the cylinders as a circular list that wraps around from the
last cylinder to the first one
 Total number of cylinders?

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.56 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 C-SCAN (Cont.)

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.57 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 C-LOOK
 LOOK a version of SCAN, C-LOOK a version of C-SCAN
 Arm only goes as far as the last request in each direction,
then reverses direction immediately, without first going all
the way to the end of the disk
 Total number of cylinders?

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.58 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 C-LOOK (Cont.)

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.59 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Selecting a Disk-Scheduling Algorithm
 SSTF is common and has a natural appeal
 SCAN and C-SCAN perform better for systems that place a heavy load
on the disk
 Less starvation
 Performance depends on the number and types of requests
 Requests for disk service can be influenced by the file-allocation method
 And metadata layout
 The disk-scheduling algorithm should be written as a separate module of
the operating system, allowing it to be replaced with a different algorithm
if necessary
 Either SSTF or LOOK is a reasonable choice for the default algorithm
 What about rotational latency?
 Difficult for OS to calculate
 How does disk-based queueing effect OS queue ordering efforts?

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.60 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Disk Management
 Low-level formatting, or physical formatting — Dividing a disk into
sectors that the disk controller can read and write
 Each sector can hold header information, plus data, plus error
correction code (ECC)
 Usually 512 bytes of data but can be selectable
 To use a disk to hold files, the operating system still needs to record its
own data structures on the disk
 Partition the disk into one or more groups of cylinders, each treated
as a logical disk
 Logical formatting or “making a file system”
 To increase efficiency most file systems group blocks into clusters
 Disk I/O done in blocks
 File I/O done in clusters

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.61 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Disk Management (Cont.)
 Raw disk access for apps that want to do their own block
management, keep OS out of the way (databases for example)
 Boot block initializes system
 The bootstrap is stored in ROM
 Bootstrap loader program stored in boot blocks of boot
partition
 Methods such as sector sparing used to handle bad blocks

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.62 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Booting from a Disk in Windows

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.63 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 RAID Structure
 RAID – redundant array of inexpensive disks
 multiple disk drives provides reliability via redundancy
 Increases the mean time to failure
 Mean time to repair – exposure time when another failure could
cause data loss
 Mean time to data loss based on above factors
 If mirrored disks fail independently, consider disk with 1300,000
mean time to failure and 10 hour mean time to repair
 Mean time to data loss is 100, 0002 / (2 ∗ 10) = 500 ∗ 106
hours, or 57,000 years!
 Frequently combined with NVRAM to improve write performance
 Several improvements in disk-use techniques involve the use of
multiple disks working cooperatively

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.64 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 RAID (Cont.)
 Disk striping uses a group of disks as one storage unit
 RAID is arranged into six different levels
 RAID schemes improve performance and improve the reliability
of the storage system by storing redundant data
 Mirroring or shadowing (RAID 1) keeps duplicate of each
disk
 Striped mirrors (RAID 1+0) or mirrored stripes (RAID 0+1)
provides high performance and high reliability
 Block interleaved parity (RAID 4, 5, 6) uses much less
redundancy
 RAID within a storage array can still fail if the array fails, so
automatic replication of the data between arrays is common
 Frequently, a small number of hot-spare disks are left
unallocated, automatically replacing a failed disk and having data
rebuilt onto them

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.65 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 RAID Levels

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 RAID (0 + 1) and (1 + 0)

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 Other Features
 Regardless of where RAID implemented, other useful features
can be added
 Snapshot is a view of file system before a set of changes take
place (i.e. at a point in time)
 More in Ch 12
 Replication is automatic duplication of writes between separate
sites
 For redundancy and disaster recovery
 Can be synchronous or asynchronous
 Hot spare disk is unused, automatically used by RAID production
if a disk fails to replace the failed disk and rebuild the RAID set if
possible
 Decreases mean time to repair

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.68 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013