Mechanical Measurments

UNIT 1
Significance of Mechanical Measurement
 UNIT 1 MECHANICAL MEASURMENT
• What is Measurement ?
• Draw Fundamental Measuring Process diagram
• Significance/ Importance/Need of Measurement
 It is a very Important aspect of Engineering.
 Monitoring process and operations. Control of process and
operations. Experimental Engineering Analysis.
 Primary source of information on various aspects Design, Production,
Processing, Control system, Instrumentation, CNC Machines.
 For maintaining product Quality, Process efficiency
 In modern machines Automated Manufacturing Systems are fully
dependent of measurements of different parameters and related
control actions.
 Significance and Applications of
Measurements
 All the laboratory tests for establishing quality standard and
product quality.
 True values, Convert physical parameters into numerical values.
 Essential part of R &D for any development.
• Applications Areas of Measurements :
 Automated Control systems.
 R & D Experiments based on measurements.
 Plant performance, evaluation, Process parameter.
 Testing of material ,Products.
 Essential basics for commercial ,Sales & Purchase costing.
 Medical Science-Diagnostic, forecasting & Prevention.
 Types /Methods of Measurments
• Broadly classified into two categories-
• Direct Measurements : Measurand directly measure with
standards. Fox ex Measurement of physical quantise like
length, Measuring temp by inserting thermometer in
water.
• Indirect Measurements: Engg. applications Transducers
element which converts quantity to be measured into
analogous signals. And then feed into the end device. For
Ex Optical pyrometers, Process plants, Power plant
parameter monitoring.
 Instruments and Measuring Systems
• Instrument: It is a device for determining the
value OR magnitude of a quantity OR Variable.
• Desirable Qualities of Instruments:
 It must be accurate and Sensitive.
 Sufficient in required length and safe in operations.
 It must display output clearly and readable.
 Low cost, Low maintenance and must have long life.
 It must be reliable.
 Functions of Instruments and
Measurement Systems
• Functions of Instruments : There are three main functions.
• Indicating Function :Uses different kinds of methods for
information of measurement. Most of the time information is
obtained as a deflection of a pointer of a measuring instruments.
This is indication function. For ex.
Speedometers, Pressure gauges.
• Recording Function: Instruments make a written record usually on
paper for the value of the variable against time OR other variable.
This is recording function. For Ex. potentiometric
type recorder for temp.
• Controlling Function: Most important function especially in the field
of industrial control process. System is used to control measured
quantity.
 Mechanical, Electrical and Electronic
Instruments
a) Mechanical
b) Electrical
c) Electronic Instruments.
Mechanical: These instruments are very
reliable for static and stable conditions, but
they are unable to respond rapidly to
measurements of dynamic and transient
conditions. There have heavy, bulky, rigid
moving parts and also have noise pollution
Mechanical, Electrical and Electronic
Instruments
• ELECTRICAL: It is faster than mechanical,
indicating the output are rapid than mechanical
methods. But it depends on the mechanical
movement of the meters. The response is 0.5 to
24 seconds.
• ELECTRONIC: It is more reliable than other
system. It uses semiconductor devices and
weak signal can also be detected.
 DEFLECTION AND NULL TYPE
INSTRUMENTS
• Classification according to output display:
• Deflection Type :
 Measurement is done by relative displacement
between pointer and dial
 The measured quantity produces a mechanical
displacement of moving system of the instrument.
 An opposing effect is build in the instrument which
tries to oppose the deflection.
 The opposing effect is closely related to the
displacement. Refer the drawing on next slide.
 Deflection Type Instrument ( PMMC Type Ammeter)

• Deflection Proportional to
the current I, the quantity
under measurement.
Deflection torque Td acting
on the moving coil is
proportional to to current I
• Td = GI where G is constant.
• The opposing effect is
produced by a spring whose
torque is Tc is proportional
to defection Θ OR Tc = KΘ
Where K is spring constant.
 Deflection Type Instrument ( PMMC Type Ammeter)

• Under condition of balance

Tc=Td OR
• Deflection Θ = (G/K) I
• OR Current I = (K/G) Θ
• Value of current I, in this
case depends upon the
value of deflection Θ
 NULL Type Instruments
• NULL Type Instrument :
 In null type of instruments the value a zero OR null
indication leads to determination of the magnitude
of measure quantity.
 Instrument drawing on next slide shows the
elementary form of a D.C. Potentiometer. It is null
type of instrument.
 NULL Type instrument ( D.C. Potentiometer)

• Here unknown emf is Ex is to be

measured.
• The Slide Wire of the potentiometer
has been calibrated in terms of emf.
• The null detector is a current
galvanometer whose deflection is
proportional to the unbalance emf .
• I. e. the difference between the emf
Eab across portion ab of slide wire
and the unknown emf Ex
• As soon as the two are equal there
is no current through the
galvanometer.
 NULL Type instrument ( D.C. Potentiometer)

• --Cont
• and therefore it shows zero
deflection thereby indicating
null condition.
• Therefore the unknown emf Ex
is equal to Eab which is directly
indicated by the calibrated
scale placed alongside the slide
wire.
 Comparisons of Deflection and Null Type
Output Instrument.

Deflection Output type Instru Null Output type instrument

• Magnitude of measurement • Magnitude of Measurement
is amount of pointer on is shown by null indication .
scale.
• Accuracy : Less accurate • Accuracy is higher
• Sensitivity :Less sensitive • Highly sensitive
• Dynamic Measurement : • Not suitable for dynamic
More suitable. Faster conditions of measurement.
response. • Example :
• Examples: • Pan balance,Dead weight
Ammeters,pressure Gauges pressure gauge.
Classification of instrument according to output
Signal
Works in two type of output modes :
• Analog mode and
• Digital Mode
• Analog Signals : ( Continues function)
 Signal vary in a continuous faction and take on infinite
numbers of values in any given range are called as analog
signals.
 The device which produce these signals are called analog
devices. Majority of the instruments are analog type.
 Examples : Voltmeters, Speedometers in car
Classification of instrument according to output
Signal
• Digital Signals : ( in Discrete numbers)
 The signal which vary in discrete steps and thus take
up only finite different values in a given range are
called as digital signals.
 The device that produce such signals are called as
digital devices.
 Examples : Digital temp indicators, Calibrated digital
balance,, Odometers.
Elements of a Generalized Measurement System

• Device is designed to maintain a functional

relationship between prescribed properties of
physical variable and means of communication to a
human observer.
• Functional elements / A Measuring system in a
Generalized manner : The whole opetation can be
described in terms of functional elements.
• Most of the measurement systems contain the three
main functional elements .
 Elements of Generalized Measurement System

• Primary sensing element.

• Variable conversion element and
• Data presentation element.
• PRIMARY SENSING ELEMENT:
 The quantity under measurement makes its first contact
with the primary sensing element of a measurement system.
 It senses the quantity under measurement and converts into
an analogous electrical signal.
 This is done by a Transducer (Device).Converts physical
quantity into electrical quantity. ( Electrical Signal )
 This is first stage of measurement system known as ‘Detector
transducer Stage’.
 Examples of elements :Thermocouples, Bourdon tube etc
 Elements of a Generalized Measurement
System

• VARIABLE CONVERSION ELEMENT:

 Some times o/p of primary sensing element is not
suitable to the system.
 For Instrument performing conversion may required
Aanlogous to Digital signal
 It converts the output of the primary sensing
element into suitable form to preserve the
information content of the original signal.
 Variable Manipulation Elements :
 Elements of a Generalized Measurement
System
• DATA PRESENTATION ELEMENT: The
information about the quantity under
measurement has to be conveyed to the
personnel handling the instrument or the
system for monitoring, control or analysis
purpose.
 Functional Elements of Measurement /
Instrumentation System

• PRIMARY • VARIABLE • VARIABLE • DATA • DATA

• QUANTITY
SENSING CONVER MANIPULA TRANSMISS PRESENTA
• TO BE • TI-ON IO-N •
ELEMENT -SION TION
MEASURED
ELEMENT ELEMENT ELEMENT ELEMENT

• DATA CONDITIONING ELEMENT

• TERMINATING
• DETECTOR • INTERMEDIATE STAGE • STAGE
TRANSDUCER
STAGE
Input Output Configuration of a Measuring
Instruments
• Basic Diagram
• O= Gi . G is transfer factor. i = Input ,O=Output
• Classification of inputs it to three categories
 Desired Input
 Interfering Inputs
 Modifying Inputs
Input Output Configuration of a Measuring
Instruments
• Desired Input :
 Desired inputs are defined as quantities for
which the instrument /Measuring system is
specifically designed to measure and respond.
 The output is linearly proportional to input.
 CD = GD x rD, Where CD is a output
component.
Desired Inputs –Measurement of differential
pressure with manometer
• Example :Differential manometer tube filled
with mercury and two points between which
the pressure differential is to be measure.
• P= P1-P2 = g x h ( em –ef)
• P=P1-P2 = g x em x h
• P1,P2 are the desired inputs while scale h is the
output.
• The product g and em relates the output with
input.
• Em and ef are density of mercury & Fluid is Gas .
( ef is negligible as compare to em) kg/m3
• G is Gravitational constant in ms2
• h is scale reading in meter
Input Output Configuration of a Measuring
Instruments
• Interfering Inputs :
 Interfering inputs represent quantities to which an
instrument OR a measuring system becomes
unintentionally sensitive.
 They give an output due to principle, design,
environment changes in which they placed.
 Interfering input ri is operated upon by a transfer
function Gi to produce an output in the same
manner as a desired inputs.
 Interfering Inputs –Measurement of
differential pressure with manometer
Acceleration as an
interfering input
• In case P1=P2,the scale reading h
should be zero.
• However there are examples when the
scale reading h is not zero even though
P1=P2 (ie desired).
• Now h reading shown here is presence
of interfering inputs.
• Diff pressure due to acclerating
platform due to which scale shows
reading.
• Acceleration acts as interfering unit.
Input Output Configuration of a Measuring
Instruments
• Modifying Inputs : ( It is more significant so
mentioned separately)
 MI defined as input which cause a change in I/p ,O/p
relationships for either desired input OR Interfering
inputs OR for both.
 MI input rM is an input that modifies GD and OR
GI.The symbol GMD and GMI affects GD and GI
respectively. These inputs interpreted in the same
general way as GD and GI
 Modifying Inputs –Measurement of
differential pressure with manometer
• Example –
• Modifying inputs for the manometer are
ambient temp and gravitational force.
• There will be Length (h) change due to
changes in this parameters
• Therefore P=P1-P2=g x em x h modified.
Input Output Configuration of a Measuring
Instruments
• Refer the block diagram again, the circle with
cross in it represents the summing point.
• The two + sign shown indicate that the output
of the summing point is the sum of the
instantaneous values of its two points.
• The output is the sum of instantaneous output
components resulting from these inputs
Performance Characteristics of a Measuring
Instruments
• Measurement is basically used to monitor a
process /Operations OR Controlling process. thus it is
very important how well an instrument perform its
various functions.
• Performance can be determined by knowing how
closely the instrument output is reflecting with the
change in variable that is being measured.
• The performance of the instruments depends on its
characteristic. Instrument has two types of
characteristics as -
 Static Characteristics of a Measuring
Instruments
• Two types are –
1. Static Characteristic ( Criteria /Behavior)
 Some applications involve the measurement of quantities
that are either constant OR vary slowly with time.
 In this circumstances it is possible to define a set of
criteria that gives a meaningful description of quality of
measurement.
 Static Characteristic must be considered when instrument
/System is used to measure a condition not varying with
the time.
 Types of Static Characteristics of a
Measuring Instruments
• The main Types of Static Characteristics are –
 Accuracy
 Precision
 Sensitivity
 Reproducibility
 Drift
 Static Error
 Dead Zone
 Types of Static Characteristics of a
Measuring Instruments
Static characteristic Desirable OR Undesirable
 Accuracy  Desirable
 Precision  Desirable
 Sensitivity  Desirable
 Reproducibility  Desirable
 Drift  Undesirable
 Static Error  Undesirable
 Dead Zone  Undesirable
 Types of Static Characteristics of a
Measuring Instruments
• Accuracy :
 It is the closeness with the which an instrument
reading approaches the true value ( accepted
standard value) of the quantity being measured . (
means conformity to truth).
 The accuracy may be specified in terms of inaccuracy
OR Limit of error and can be expressed in following
ways.
Difference Between Accuracy and Precision
 Calibration
• Calibration of all instruments is important since it
affords the opportunity to check the instruments
against a known standard and subsequently to
find errors and accuracy.
• Calibration Procedure involve a comparison of the
particular instrument with either
 a Primary standard
 a secondary standard with a higher accuracy than
the instrument to be calibrated.
 an instrument of known accuracy.
 Static Characteristics Accuracy of a
Measuring Instruments
• Accuracy : …Continued ( Conformity to true value)
 Measurement of accuracy :
 As % of True value.
 True Value: (Vt) True value of quantity may be defined as the
average of an infinite no. of measured value.
 Accuracy = (Vmax- Vt) /Vt * 100 % OR (Vmin – Vt)/Vt *100%
 Vmax & Vmin are reading taken by instruments
 Example : Temp of boiling water at 100 C is being measured by
thermometer. Reading given by thermometer are 100.4
C,100.3 C,100.5 C,100.3 C
 Find out accuracy ?
 Static Error and Correction
Accuracy =( Vmax – Vt) /Vt *100 %
(100.5-100)/100 *100 % = 0.5 C
____________________________________________________________
• Static Error : It is defined as the difference between the measured
value and true value of the quantity.
 Static Error, Es= Vm-Vt
• Where Vm =Measured value of quantity
Vt =True value of quantity.
• It is also called as the absolute static error. (It may be +ve OR –
ve).For +ve errors instrument reads high, for –ve errors the
instruments reads low
 Static Error and Correction
• Static Correction : (Cs) It is difference between the
true value and the measured value.
• Cs = Vt – Vm , that is of the same magnitude as the
error, but opposite in sign
• I e Cs = - Es
 Static Characteristics Precision and
Repeatability of Measuring Instruments
• Precision and Repeatability :
• Precision of measurement of a variable is the ability
of obtaining nearly the same value when the
measurement is repeated.
• OR Ability to reproduce a measured value within a
given limit, every time same measurement is carried
out.
• Smaller the difference ,more precise is the
measurement.
 Static Characteristics Precision and
Repeatability of Measuring Instruments
• Precision leads to Repeatability. It is Ability of the
measurement system to give the same output for the
same input repeatedly.
• For Example : It is required to measure 100 V. Five
measurements are taken 103,104,105,103,105. For
true voltage of 100 V largest measured value is 105
• The measurement could be in error by 5 %,but the
variation in the five reading is +- 1% because the
maximum deviation from the mean value of 104
volts is only one volts
 Static Characteristics Reproducibility
• Reproducibility : Consistency refers to the
reproducibility.
• It is Measure of closeness with which a given input
may be measured over and over again.
• It is Variation in measurement when two or more
persons measure the same unit using the same
measuring gage (or tool).
• Readings taken under different conditions like-
Location ,Operator, Diff conditions of instruments use
and Over long time span must be same and reproduce
 Scale Range and Scale Span
• SCALE RANGE: The scale range of an instrument is
defined as the difference between the largest and
the smallest reading of the instrument.
Suppose highest point of calibration is X max units
while the lowest is Xmin units, then the instrument
range is between Xmin and Xmax.
• SCALE SPAN: Scale span or instrument span is
given as Scale span= Xmax - Xmin
It is the difference between highest and lowest
point of calibration.
 Scale Range and Scale Span
• Examples :
• Range -10 C to 80 C ; Span 90 C
• Range 5 bar to 100 bar ; Span 95 bar
• Range 0 Volts to 75 volt ; Span 75 volt
 Static Characteristics Linearity
• Linearity of the instrument
refers to the output is
linearly or directly
proportional to input over
the entire range of
instrument.
• The degree of linear
(straight line) relationship
between the output to
input is called as linearity
of an instrument.
 Static Characteristics Linearity
• Nonlinearity:
• The maximum difference or deviation of
output curve from the specified idealized
straight line as shown in figure.
Independent nonlinearity may be defined as -
 Static Characteristics Sensitivity
• Sensitivity :
• Defined as the ratio of change in output signal (response)
to the change in input signal (measurand).
• It is the relationship indicating how much output changes
when input changes.
• (if)the sensitivity is constant then the system is said to be
linear system.
• (If )the sensitivity is variable then the system is said to be
non linear system.
• Sensitivity Curve (a) For Linear and (b) For Non linear
instrument shown on next slide…
 Static Characteristics Resolution
• Resolution :
• Resolution or Discrimination is the smallest
change in the input value that is required to
cause an appreciable change in the output.
(The smallest increment in input or input
change which can be detected by an
instrument is called as resolution or
discrimination)
 Static Characteristics Hysteresis
• Hysteresis :
• Hysteresis is Non-coincidence of loading and unloading
curves on output. Hysteresis effect shows up in any
physical, chemical or electrical phenomenon.
• When input increases, output also increases and
calibration curve can be drawn.
• When input is decreases from maximum value and output
also decreases but does not follow the same curve, then
there is a residual output when input is zero. This
phenomenon is called Hysteresis.
 Static Characteristics Hysteresis
• The difference between
increasing change and
decreasing change of output
values is known as Hysteresis
error as shown in figure.
• The different outputs from
the same value of quantity
being measured are reached
by a continuously increasing
change or a continuously
decreasing change.
 Static Characteristics Threshold
• Threshold :
• The minimum value of input
which is necessary to
activate an instrument to
produce an output is termed
its threshold as shown in
figure .
• Threshold is the minimum
value of the input required
to cause the pointer to move
from zero position.
 Static Characteristics Drift
• Drift :
• Drift is an undesirable change in output over a
period of time that is unrelated to change in input,
operating conditions.
• Drift is occurred in instruments due to internal
temperature variations, ageing effects and high
stress ect.
• Zero drift is used for the changes that occur in
output when there is zero output.
• It is expressed as percentage of full range output.
 CLASSIFICATION OF ERRORS
• In reality, no measurement can ever made with 100%
accuracy.
• It is important to find that actual accuracy and
different types of errors can be occurred in
measuring instruments.
• Errors may arise from different sources and usually
classified as follows, Classification of Error :
 CLASSIFICATION OF ERRORS
• Classification of Error
• 1. Gross Errors
• 2. Systematic Errors
• a) Instrumental errors
• i) Inherent shortcomings of instruments
• ii) Misuse of instruments
• iii) Loading effects
• b) Environmental errors
• c) Observational errors
• 3. Random Errors
 Type of Errors – Gross Errors
• 1. Gross Errors :
• The main source of Gross errors is human mistakes in
reading or using instruments and in recording and
calculating measured quantity.
• As long as human beings are involved and they may grossly
misread the scale reading, then definitely some gross errors
will be occurred in measured value.
• The complete elimination of gross errors maybe
impossible, one should try to predict and correct them.
• Gross errors can be avoided by using the following two
ways.
 Type of Errors – Gross Errors
• 1 Great care should be taken in reading and
recording the data.
• 2 Three or even more readings should be taken for
the quantity being measured by using different
experimenters and different reading point.
• 3 it is suitable to take a large number of readings as
a close agreement between readings assures that
no gross error has been occurred in measured
values.
 Type of Errors – Systematic Errors
• 2. Systematic Errors :
• Systematic errors are again divided into
following three categories.
• i. Instrumental Errors
• ii. Environmental Errors
• iii. Observational Errors
 Type of Errors – Systematic Errors
• i) Instrumental Errors
• These errors are arises due to following three
reasons (sources of error).
• a) Due to inherent shortcoming of instrument
• b) Due to misuse of the instruments, and
• c) Due to loading effects of instruments
 Type of Errors – Systematic Errors
• a) Inherent Shortcomings of instruments :
• These errors are inherent in instruments because of their
mechanical structure due to construction, calibration or
operation of the instruments or measuring devices.
• These errors may cause the instrument to read too low or
too high.
• Example, if the spring (used for producing controlling
torque) of a permanent magnet instrument has become
weak, so the instrument will always read high.
• Errors may be caused because of friction, hysteresis or
even gear backlash.
 Type of Errors – Systematic Errors
• Elimination or reduction methods of these
errors:
• The instrument may be re-calibrated carefully.
• The procedure of measurement must be
carefully planned.
• Substitution methods or calibration against
standards may be used for the purpose.
• Correction factors should be applied after
determining the instrumental errors.
 Type of Errors – Systematic Errors
• b) Misuse of Instruments :
• In some cases the errors are occurred in measurement
due to the fault of the operator than that of the
instrument.
• A good instrument used in an unintelligent way may give
wrong results.
• Examples, Misuse of instruments may be - failure to
do zero adjustment of instrument, poor initial
adjustments, using leads of too high resistance and ill
practices of instrument beyond the manufacturer’s
instruction and specifications ect.
 Type of Errors – Systematic Errors
• c) Loading Effects
• The errors committed by loading effects due to improper use of
an instrument for measurement work.
• In measurement system, loading effects are identified and
corrections should be made or more suitable instruments can
be used.
• Example - A well calibrated voltmeter may give a misleading
(may be false) voltage reading when connected across a high
resistance circuit.
• The same voltmeter, when connected across a low resistance
circuit may give a more reliable reading (dependable or steady
or true value).
 Type of Errors –Systematic Errors
• In this example, voltmeter has a loading effect
on the circuit, altering the actual circuit
conditions by measurement process.
• This errors caused by loading effect of the
meters can be avoided by using them
intelligently.
 Type of Errors – Systematic Errors
• ii) Environmental Error
• Environmental error occurs due to external environmental
conditions of the instrument, such as effects of temperature,
pressure, humidity, dust, vibration or external magnetic or
electrostatic fields.
• Elimination or reduction methods of these undesirable errors
are -
• Arrangements should be made to keep the conditions as nearly
as constant as possible.
• Example, temperature can be kept constant by keeping the
instrument in the temperature controlled region.
• The device which is used against these environmental effects.
 Type of Errors – Systematic Errors
• Example, variations in resistance with temperature can be minimized
by using very low resistance temperature co-efficient of resistive
material.
• Employing techniques which eliminate the effects of these
disturbances.
• For example, the effect of humidity dust etc., can be entirely
eliminated by tightly sealing the equipment.
• The external or electrostatic effects can be eliminated by using
magnetic or electrostatic shield on the instrument.
• Applying computed corrections: Efforts are normally made to avoid
the use of application of computed corrections, but where these
corrections are needed and are necessary, they are incorporated for
the computations of the results .
 Type of Errors – Systematic Errors
• iii) Observational Errors
• There are many sources of observational errors. As
an example, the pointer of a voltmeter rests slightly
above the surface of the scale.
• Thus an error on account of PARALLAX will be
acquired unless the line of vision of the observer is
exactly above the pointer.
• To minimize parallax errors, highly accurate meters
are provided with mirrored scales as shown in figure
on next slide..
Type of Errors – Systematic Errors
 Type of Errors – Systematic Errors
• When the pointer’s image appears hidden by
the pointer, observer’s eye is directly in line
with the pointer. Although a mirrored scale
minimizes parallax error,
 Type of Errors – Systematic Errors
• The observational errors are also occurs due to
involvement of human factors.
• For example, there are observational errors in
measurements involving timing of an event.
• Different observer may produce different
results, especially when sound and light
measurement are involved.
• The complete elimination of this error can be
achieved by using digital display of output.
 Type of Errors – Systematic Errors
• 3. Random Errors :
• These errors are occurred due to unknown causes
and are observed when the magnitude and
polarity of a measurement fluctuate in changeable
(random) manner.
• The quantity being measure is affected by many
happenings or disturbances and ambient influence
about which we are unaware are lumped together
and called as Random or Residual.
 Type of Errors – Systematic Errors
• The errors caused by these disturbances are
called Random Errors.
• As the errors remain even after the systematic
errors have been taken care, those errors are
called as Residual (Random) Errors.
• Random errors cannot normally be predicted
or corrected, but they can be minimized by
skilled observer and using a well maintained
quality instrument.
 Type of Errors – Systematic Errors
• SOURCES OF ERRORS :
• The sources of error, other than the inability of a piece of
hardware to provide a true measurement are listed below,
1. Insufficient knowledge of process parameters and design
conditions.
2. Poor design
3. Change in process parameters, irregularities, upsets
(disturbances) ect.
4. Poor maintenance
5. Errors caused by people who operate the instrument or
equipment.
6. Certain design limitations.
 Probable Error
• A convenient way of measuring
precision is probable error which
represents a value of variation in
quantity such that 50% of
observations will lies with in+-
the value of the probable error.
• In fact probable error value is
determined on normal error
curve corresponding to 50% of
area of normal curve from centre
on either side.
• Value of probable error in terms
of standard deviation is 0.6745 σ
 Probable Error
• If finite numbers of
readings (n) are taken in
an experiment, then
probable error = (PE)=
0.6745 σ/Square root of n
 Standard deviation
Standard deviation :
A number used to tell how
measurements for a group are
spread out from the average
(mean), or expected value. It is
measure of variation.
Low standard deviation
means that most of the
numbers are very close to the
average.
High standard
deviation means that the
numbers are spread out.
• END OF UNIT 1 Syllabus