Development of
Science and
Technology in Middle
East and Africa
GECSTS-GECTEC BS CPE 2A
GROUP 2: Oliverio, Joanah A.
Sebonga, Coline T.
Aligato, Arlah Mae O.
Tabino, Melyn C.
Talara, Earl John S.
Middle East
• During the Golden Age of Islam, Islamic science
made significant advancements in various fields,
including astronomy, mathematics, medicine,
alchemy, botany, geography, ophthalmology,
pharmacology, and physics. This period of Muslim
learning began in the seventh and eighth
centuries and lasted until the thirteenth century.
• Historians disagree on the importance of Islamic
science during the Middle Ages. Some believe it
was merely a transmitter of ancient knowledge,
while others see it as a scientific revolution.
Regardless, Islamic science flourished in various
institutions for centuries.
Alchemy and Chemistry
Before Islam, alchemy
was based on the belief that
different proportions of the
four elements (fire, earth,
air, and water) made up all
substances. Alchemists
believed lead was the basest
metal and gold was the
noblest.
Jabir ibn Hayyan (8th–9th Centuries)
Geber was a polymath who
studied various fields including
chemistry, alchemy, astronomy,
and medicine. He is considered by
some to be the father of early
chemistry. Geber wrote articles on
alchemy based on his own research.
He discussed experimental
procedures that would be used in
chemistry, including the use of
nitric and sulfuric acids. He also
discussed procedures like
distillation, reduction, and
sublimation, and used apparatuses
like the retort stand and the
alembic.
Astronomy and Cosmology
Islamic science prioritized astronomy, both for understanding the cosmos and
serving practical needs like determining the Qibla.
Qibla
Muslims must face the qibla, the
direction of the Kaaba in Mecca, when
praying, symbolizing unity in their
community. The qibla is also important
in other practices, such as orienting
animals during ritual slaughter and
burying the dead with their faces
turned toward it
Al-Battani (850–922) Nasir al-Din al-Tusi (1201–
1274)
He was an Arab mathematician, astronomer, Credited with developing trigonometry into a
and astrologer. A number of trigonometric separate branch of mathematics. He practiced
relations were introduced by him. He Twelver Islam. He published a significant update
correctly calculated the size of the solar year. to Ptolemy's celestial model. He was given an
He made contributions to the Toledo Tables, observatory and access to Chinese methods and
which astronomers used to forecast the observations when he was appointed Helagu's
motions of the sun, moon, and planets in the astrologer. He established trigonometry as a
sky. Copernicus used a few of his astronomical distinct discipline and created the most precise
tables in the future. astronomical tables at the time
Geography and
Cartography
Due to the rapid spread of Islam throughout
Western Asia and North Africa, trade and travel on
land and at sea increased at a rate never before
seen, reaching as far as Southeast Asia, China,
much of Africa, Scandinavia, and even Iceland.
Starting from a variety of diverse but incomplete
sources, geographers worked to produce
increasingly accurate maps of the known world.
Al-Biruni (973–1048) Al-Idrisi (1100–1166)
Iranian scholar and polymath Al- Biruni. He was An Arab Muslim geographer, cartographer, and
from Khwarazm, which includes northern Egyptologist, was born in Ceuta, then under the
Turkmenistan and western Uzbekistan in modern control of the Almoravids, and he spent his early
times. Being well-versed in physics, years in Palermo, Sicily, at the court of King Roger
mathematics, astronomy, and the natural II. For Roger, the Norman King of Sicily, he drew
sciences, Biruni is regarded as one of the greatest a globe. The Tabula Rogeriana (Book of Roger), a
scholars of the medieval Islamic era. He also geographical study of the peoples, climates,
made a name for himself as a historian, resources, and industries of the entire world as it
chronologist, and linguist. He developed a new was known at the time, was another work he
technique for calculating the earth's radius. It produced.
involved measuring a mountain's height in
Nandana (now in Pakistan).
The Ottoman Admiral Piri Reis (c.
1470–1553)
Piri Reis (Turkish: Pîrî
Reis)
In 1513, he created a map of the
New World and West Africa, drawing
on maps from various sources,
including Muslim, Greek, and
Portuguese materials, as well as
possibly a map by Christopher
Columbus. He was part of a
significant Ottoman cartographic
tradition.
Botany Ibn al-'Awwam al-Ishbīlī
The study of plants in the Islamic world
Ibn al-'Awwam al-Ishbl of Seville, an
contributed significantly to the development agronomist, wrote Kitb alFilha (Treatise
of pharmacology. This investigation of nature on Agriculture) in the 12th century. He
led to a deeper understanding of plants and had traveled extensively and wrote a
practical and organized book on
their medicinal properties, which resulted in agriculture, describing over 180
unprecedented advancements in the field of plants. Islamic agronomists from the
middle ages also provided descriptions
medicine. of various agricultural practices, such
Al-Dinawari as growing date and olive palms and
alternating crops like flax with wheat
or barley.
Al-Dinawari was a polymath from the Islamic Golden
Age who studied various fields including astronomy,
agriculture, botany, and mathematics. He was born
in Kermanshah and studied in Isfahan, Kufa, and
Basra. He is known for his work on botany,
particularly his six-volume Kitab al-Nabat (Book of
Plants), which lists hundreds of plants and explains
the stages of plant growth.
Optics and Ophthalmology
Optics advanced quickly during this time. There were works on
physiological, geometrical, and physical optics by the ninth
century. Included in the discussion were mirror reflections.
Ibn Sahl
Ibn Sahl (ca. 940–1000) Ibn Shal was a Muslim
Persian mathematician and physicist who worked for
the Buwayhid court in Baghdad during the Islamic
Golden Age. In 984, he published a treatise titled On
Burning Mirrors and Lenses in which he explained
how curved mirrors and lenses bend and focus light.
The law of refraction, also known as Snell's law, is
generally credited to Ibn Sahl. He developed the
shapes of anaclastic lenses—lenses that focus light
Optics and Ophthalmology
Ibn Sahl
Snell's law (also known as
the Snell–Descartes law,
the ibn-Sahl law, and the
law of refraction)
MEDICINES
Al-Razi (ca. 854–925/935) Al- Zahrawil-Razi (ca. 854–925/935)
Al- Razi was a prominent figure in the Al-Zahrawi was an Al-Andalus-based Arab
history of medicine and a Persian polymath Muslim physician, surgeon, and chemist. He
who was also a doctor, philosopher, and has been referred to as the "father of
alchemist. He also published works on surgery" and is regarded as the greatest
grammar, astronomy, and logic. He surgeon of the Middle Ages. Al-Tasrif is the
recognized measles and smallpox as well name given to his most significant surviving
as that fever was a natural part of the work as a surgeon (Medical Knowledge). It is
body's defenses. He compiled medical a 30-volume collection that primarily covers
knowledge from China, India, Persia, Syria, pharmacology, medical symptoms, and
and Greece in a 23 volume work. treatments. The final book, on surgery,
describes surgical equipment, supplies, and
cutting-edge techniques
MEDICINES
Ibn al-Nafis (1213–1288)
Ibn al-Nafis (1213–1288) It is
believed that he replaced Avicenna's
Canon with a significant medical text
in the Islamic world. He wrote
commentaries on the writings of
Galen and Avicenna. These
commentaries included one that
described how blood circulates
through the lungs and was
discovered in 1924
SCIENCE AND
TECHNOLOGY IN
AFRICA
Africa
Africa is recognized as the birthplace of humanity,
with modern humans existing by 100,000 BC as
hunters and gatherers using stone tools. By 5,000
BC, farming had begun in North Africa, where
people cultivated crops and herded cattle in a green
Sahara, which later turned into a desert. Around
3,200 BC, writing emerged in Egypt, alongside
advancements in bronze tools and weapons.
However, much of Sub-Saharan Africa remained
isolated from Egypt due to the Sahara vast expanse
and its limited maritime trade options.
Ironworking
began in North Africa around 600 BC and gradually spread south, reaching
present-day South Africa by 500 AD. The Phoenicians established Carthage in
480 BC, which later became a significant power until its defeat by Rome in 202
BC and subsequent destruction in 146 BC.
Meanwhile, Egyptian culture influenced
the rise of the Nubian and Kushite
kingdoms in Sudan, and by 100 AD, the
prosperous kingdom of Axum emerged in
Ethiopia, known for its trade with Rome
and conversion to Christianity in the 4th
century AD.
Development of Kingdoms and
Mathematics in Ancient Africa
Africa is recognized as the
birthplace of early
mathematics. Evidence shows
thatAfricans employed
numerals, algebra, and
geometry in everyday life
thousands of yearsago, with
knowledge spreading globally
through migrations starting
around 30,000 BC.
archaeological finds include:
Lebombo Bone (35,000 BC): A Ishango Bone (20,000 BC):
baboon fibula from Swaziland, Discovered in the Democratic
marked with 29 distinct notches, Republic of Congo, this bone
possibly used for tracking features clusters of markings
menstrual or lunar cycles, representing quantities, including
indicating early mathematical prime numbers, showcasing
understanding. advanced mathematical concepts.
These artifacts reflect the sophisticated understanding of time and
mathematics in ancient African communities, often linked to celestial
observations and cultural symbolism, such as associations with the baboon
and the moon.
Egypt
one of the world’s most advanced civilizations from
around 3100 BCE to 30 BCE, was characterized by its
geographic protection and fertile land along the Nile.
The civilization produced enduring monuments like
temples, pyramids, and hieroglyphics, leaving a rich
legacy of their cultural and social practices.
Ancient Egyptians relied heavily on the River Nile for
agriculture, as the annual floods enriched the soil along
its banks. Farmers constructed ditches and low walls to
capture the floodwaters and grow crops like wheat,
barley, and vegetables. The kingdom survival
depended on these floods, and in dry years, many
faced starvation.
Reading and writing were crucial skills in Ancient
Egypt, reserved for the elite, particularly priests and
scribes, who held significant societal roles and
assisted pharaohs in governance. They maintained
detailed records on various aspects of life,
providinginsights into ancient society.
The Egyptians worshipped around 2,000 gods and
goddesses, often depicted with human bodies and
animal features. These deities were believed to
influence everything from celestial movements to
agriculture and childbirth. Each community had its own
patron deity, and the prominence of different gods
could shift over time.
Pharaoh
Pharaohs, seen as divine rulers,
wielded immense power and
responsibility, leading armies and
managing the kingdom resources,
including the vital Nile floods.
They wore crowns adorned with a
cobra symbol, representing
protection against enemies. If
disasters occurred, pharaohs
were often blamed and had to
appeal to the gods for help.
Ancient Egypt Temple
The Ancient Egyptian built huge
temples as house for their gods and
goddesses. They were designed to
improve to be impressive buildings,
with massive stone walls and rows of
columns carved with statues, images,
and hieroglyphs (picture writing).
Ordinary people could only enter the
outer courtyard of the temple. Inside
were dark rooms where priests
performed sacred rituals to honor the
gods and ask for their
blessings.
Karnak Temple
The Karnak temple complex, one of the largest Egyptian
temples still standing, was built to honor Amun-Ra, the
chief of the Egyptian gods, with over 80,000 people
working there as servants, guards, and priests. Beneath
the Egyptian mountains lie incredible tombs carved to
house dead pharaohs and their treasures, with the
largest group located in the Valley of the Kings near
Thebes. More than 60 tombs have been discovered in
this valley, while the nearby Valley of the Queens
contains over 70 tombs of queens and princesses.
Despite being hidden underground, many tombs were
robbed over the centuries, as the Ancient Egyptians
believed that damage to the body after death would
harm the spirit in the afterlife. To protect their souls, rich
Egyptians preserved their bodies as mummies, often
burying them in lavish coffins surrounded by gold and
jewels, such as the solid gold inner coffin of
Tutankhamun, which weighs 296 pounds (110 kg)
Pyramids
The most famous monuments of Ancient
Egypt are the pyramids, which have
fascinated people for thousands of years.
These massive stone structures were built
as the tombs of pharaohs and members of
their families. These are more than 80
pyramids scattered across Egypt, but the
most famous are found at Giza on the north
of Egypt.
Pyramids
This group of six pyramids includes some of the largest
and best preserved examples. Archaeologist found no
mummies in the pyramids of Giza. They had all been
stolen by grave robbers many centuries ago. The
pyramids were made by stacking up huge blocks of
limestone, which were quarried nearby. The builders laid
roughly shaped in horizontal patterns, then used mortar
(a form of cement) to hold them together and fill any
gaps in between them. The outsides of the pyramids were
covered in smooth blocks of high-quality limestone,
brought in from special quarries farther away.
Capstone
The stone at the top of the pyramid, called
the capstone, may have been covered in
gold so it shone in the sunlight A tall
passageway 26ft ( 8m) high and 154ft(47
m) long leads to the door of the burial
chamber. An entranceway on the outside of
the pyramid was hidden with stone blocks
after the pharaoh was buried inside. Secret
passages lead to another chamber cut into
the rock underneath the pyramid. It is 100ft
930m) below ground level and may have
been intended as the pharaoh’s burial
chamber, before he decided to be buried
higher up instead.
History And Facts
There are other theories concerning the pyramids, namely
that they were located to reflect the constellation Orion, with
the three pyramids at Giza representing the belt of Orion. As
with the Neolithic astronomy, this is largely conjectural and
all that we can
safely say is that the Egyptians built their monuments to
reflect the cardinal directions and important times of year.
This trend continued in the Valley of the Kings, where
Rameses II built his huge Temple of Abu Simbel to ensure
that sunlight only penetrated
the inner sanctum on the 20th of October and the 20th of
February, with one of these days believed to be the
anniversary of his coronation.
Medicine
The doctors recited an incantation and prayed the gods
to assist the patient’s healing. The doctors/priests also
employed talismans in their rituals, and if patients were
cured it was thanks to the placebo effect that such
procedures played on the psyche and body. Overall, it
can be claimed that ancient Egyptian medicine is
grounded in mysticism and herbology. Since the ancient
Egyptians had their own alphabetical and numerical
system, they started recording their medical findings,
and they compiled the Ebers Papyrus, which today is
the most ancient text concerning medical practice.
CONCLUSIONS
The scientific and technological developments in the Middle East
and Africa show a rich history of innovation and learning. In the Middle
East, during the Islamic Golden Age (7th to 13th centuries),
advancements spanned fields such as astronomy, mathematics,
medicine, alchemy, and geography. The region also saw
advancements in botany and pharmacology, influenced by figures like
Al-Dinawari and Ibn al-'Awwam, while optics was explored by Ibn Sahl.
In Africa, early civilizations such as Egypt achieved milestones in
mathematics, engineering, and medicine, visible in the construction of
the pyramids and medical texts like the Ebers Papyrus. Sub-Saharan
Africa, though more isolated, developed significant achievements in
ironworking, and early mathematical tools such as the Lebombo and
Ishango bones show an understanding of mathematical concepts
dating back tens of thousands of years. African societies' innovations
in agriculture and medicine underscored their adaptability and
resourcefulness, while monumental architectures like Egypt’s pyramids
reflect astronomical knowledge and religious beliefs.
