LECTURE 4

Digital Transmission

Iheanetu, O. U. (Ph.D)
Learning Objectives

• To introduce modulation and demodulation

• To explain the types of modulation
• To introduce multiplexing
• To explain the types of multiplexing
Analog signals are mostly used for ling distance
transmission but the challenge is that they suffer from
many losses such as distortion, interference, and
inherent insecurity.
With analog modulation, any noise or interference that
falls in the given frequency bandwidth gets mixed with
the actual signal
 Digital Transmission
• Digital transmission system may or may not
include conversions between analog and
digital signals
• The transmitter converts a digital bit-stream
into an analog waveform which is sent to the
physical channel, which in practice is
analog.
• The receiver converts the received analog
waveform back to digital format.
Elements of Digital Communication
• The transmission chain includes:
– Source coding/decoding: Reducing the bit-rate of
the information signal by reducing the redundancy;
Compression.
– Channel coding/decoding: Error control coding,
compensating the effect of bit errors that inevitably
take place in a practical transmission channel.
– Modulation/ Demodulation
Source
• The source can be an analog signal. Example: A Sound
signal
Input Transducer
• This is a transducer which takes a physical input and
converts it to an electrical signal (Example: microphone).
This block also consists of an analog to digital converter
where a digital signal is needed for further processes. A
digital signal is generally represented by a binary sequence.
Source Encoder
• The source encoder compresses the data into minimum
number of bits. This process helps in effective utilization of
the bandwidth. It removes the redundant bits unnecessary
excess bits,i.e., zeroes.
Channel Encoder
• The channel encoder, does the coding for error
correction. During the transmission of the signal, due to
the noise in the channel, the signal may get altered and
hence to avoid this, the channel encoder adds some
redundant bits to the transmitted data. These are the
error correcting bits.
Digital Modulator
• The signal to be transmitted is modulated here by a
carrier. The signal is also converted to analog from the
digital sequence, in order to make it travel through the
channel or medium.
Channel
• The channel or a medium, allows the analog signal to
transmit from the transmitter end to the receiver end.
Digital Demodulator
• This is the first step at the receiver end. The received signal
is demodulated as well as converted again from analog to
digital. The signal gets reconstructed here.
Channel Decoder
• The channel decoder, after detecting the sequence, does
some error corrections. The distortions which might occur
during the transmission, are corrected by adding some
redundant bits. This addition of bits helps in the complete
recovery of the original signal.
Source Decoder
• The resultant signal is once again digitized by sampling and
quantizing so that the pure digital output is obtained without
the loss of information. The source decoder recreates the
source output.
Output Transducer
• This is the last block which converts the signal
into the original physical form, which was at
the input of the transmitter. It converts the
electrical signal into physical output
–Example: loud speaker
Output Signal
• This is the output which is produced after the
whole process.
–Example − The sound signal received.
 Background
• Data or information can be stored as either
analog and digital form.
–Computers can only use data, it must in
discrete digital form.
• Signals can also be in analog and digital form.
–To transmit data digitally, it needs to be first
converted to digital form.
 Digital-to-Digital Conversion
• Can be done in two ways
– Line coding
• Process for converting digital data into digital signal. Digital data is found in
binary format.
• It is represented (stored) internally as series of 1s and 0s.
• Digital signal is denoted by discreet signal, which represents digital data.
– Block coding
• Overcomes the drawback of line coding (redundancy) and gives better
performance.
• Block Codes operates on a block of bits.
• Use a preset algorithm; takes the group of bits, add a coded part to them in
order to make them a large block.
• This large block is then checked at the receiver after that receiver makes the
decision about the validity of the received sequence.
• Block coding changes a block of m bits into the block of n bits where n>m.
Line Coding
 Communications Hardware
a. Modems
• A modem (modulator-demodulator) is a device that
modulates an analog carrier signal to encode digital
information, and also demodulates such a carrier
signal to decode the transmitted information.
– It is a composite word that refers to its two basic functions:
MOdulator and DEModulator (MODEM)
• The goal is to produce a signal that can be
transmitted easily and decoded to reproduce the
original digital data.
• A modem modulates outgoing digital signals from a
computer or other digital device to analog signals for
a conventional copper twisted pair telephone line and
demodulates the incoming analog signal and converts
it to a digital signal for the digital device.
• Modems can be used over any means of transmitting
analog signals, from light emitting diodes to radio
• In recent years, the 2400 bits per second modem that
could carry e-mail has become obsolete. 14.4 Kbps
and 28.8 Kbps modems were temporary landing
places on the way to the much higher bandwidth
devices and carriers of tomorrow. From early
• Information transmission and reception can be successfully
achieved with the help of these two processes.
–Modulation
–Demodulation
• Modulation : the process of combining the low-frequency
audio waves with a very-high frequency radio waves.
• The low-frequency wave is called Modulating Wave.
• The very-high frequency radio wave which carries the low
frequency audio wave information is called a Carrier Wave.
• The resultant wave obtained is called Modulated Signal.
 Destination
Source

Fig. 3 – PC-Modem Communication

• Demodulation : Demodulation involves
recovering the low-frequency audio wave
(baseband signal) from the Modulated Carrier
Wave.
• This process is performed at the receiving end
(receiver). It is the reverse process of
modulation.
• Carrier Wave - is a high frequency radio wave
produced using radio-frequency oscillators.
• The radio frequency ranges from 3kHz to
300GHz.
 Need for Modulation
• Audio frequency signals are low-frequency signals.
–Modulation is important to transfer the signals over
large distances since it is not possible to send low-
frequency signals for longer distances
• The need to match the transmission characteristics
of the medium
–Some media have characteristics that severely distort
digital waveforms, hence, it is necessary to send
digital information in analog form using sinusoidal
carriers
• The need to multiplex, or share a communication
medium among many concurrently active users
– If these signals are transmitted simultaneously with a
certain bandwidth, they may cause interference
• signals are modulated to various carrier frequencies in order
for the receiver to tune them to a desired bandwidth within
the range of transmission.
• Antenna size - the antenna size is inversely
proportional to the frequency of the radiated signal.
– The order of the antenna aperture size is at least one by a tenth of the
wavelength of the signal.
– Its size is not practicable if the signal is 5 kHz; therefore, raising
frequency by modulating process will certainly reduce the height of the
antenna.
• Modulation helps to allocate more channels for users and to
increase noise immunity.
 Disadvantages of Transmitting Unmodulated
Low-frequency signals
– Low-frequency signals cannot propagate over long
distances. They are short range signals
– If there are many transmissions of low-frequency signals
directly without modulation they interfere and the
information at the receiver will not be clear.
– The antenna length required for the transmission of audio-
frequency signals is around 75m which is practically very
large
– Thus a low-frequency signal cannot be transmitted
effectively and efficiently without modulation.
– Hence radio frequency carrier waves are modulated by low-
frequency signals and are transmitted to reach longer
distances.
 Two Types of Modulation
1. Analog Modulation
2. Digital Modulation
3. Spread spectrum method

4. Analog Modulation
• Analog signal (sinusoidal signal) is used as a carrier
signal that modulates the message signal or data signal.
• Three parameters can be altered to achieve modulation
– Amplitude
– Frequency
– Phase
2. Digital Modulation
• A message signal is converted from analog to
digital message, and then modulated using a
carrier wave
• The carrier wave is switched on and off to
create pulses such that the signal is modulated.
• Digital modulation type is decided by the
variation of the carrier wave parameters
 Advantages of Digital over Analog Modulation
• Provides more information capacity (Bandwidth)
• High data security
• Quality communication
• Permissible power
• Greater noise immunity (due to its finite process)
• Robustness to channel impairments
• Easier multiplexing of various forms of information like voice, data,
video
• Security – by using coding techniques to avoid jamming
• Accommodation of digital error control codes which detect and/or
correct transmission errors
• Equalization to improve the performance of over all communication
link
• Supports complex signal conditioning and processing method
 Analog Modulation
• High frequency radio carrier waves are
the sinusoidal waves

• Based on the change in characteristic

property of the carrier wave when
combined with the low frequency audio
signals, analog modulation is classified
into three types
i. Amplitude Modulation : The information is
converted into audio frequency (AF) signal
called modulating signal. The amplitude of the
radio-frequency (RF) carrier wave is varied
proportionately with the instantaneous amplitude
of the AF signal to obtain the modulated carrier
wave.
• The fluctuations in the amplitude of the carrier
wave depends on the amplitude of the AF signal.
– The frequency and the phase of the carrier waves remain
unchanged
• The modulating AF signal is a sinusoidal
wave.
• The amplitude fluctuations in the
modulated carrier depends on the
instantaneous amplitude of the modulating
signal.
• The frequency with which these
fluctuations occur depends on the
frequency of the AF signal.
Disadvantages of Amplitude Modulation
• Requires more power
• Requires greater bandwidth
• Filtering is very difficult.
• Applications of Amplitude Modulation
–Used in computer modems
–VHF aircraft radio
–Portable two-way radio
ii. Frequency Modulation : the frequency
of the radio frequency carrier wave is
varied by low frequency audio signals.
- The amplitude and phase of the carrier
wave remain unchanged
Applications of Frequency Modulation
–Used in different applications like
• radar, radio and telemetry
• seismic prospecting
• monitoring newborns for seizures via EEG
– Broadcasting music and speech
– Magnetic tape recording systems
– Two way radio systems
– Video transmission systems
– With sufficient bandwidth, FM provides an advantage in
cancelling naturally occurring noise in radio systems
 iii. Phase Modulation

• Here, information signal modifies the phase

of the carrier without affecting the other
two parameters.
• An essential part of many digital
transmission coding schemes for
technologies like GSM, WiFi, and satellite
television.
Amplitude Modulation
Frequency Modulation
Phase Modulation
 Digital Modulation Techniques
• Amplitude Shift Keying: the amplitude of the
carrier wave changes based on the message signal
or the base-band signal, which is in digital format.
– It is sensitive to noise and used for low-band
requirements
• Frequency Shift Keying: - the frequency of the
carrier wave is varied for each symbol in the
digital data. It requires larger bandwidths
• Phase Shift Keying: - changes the phase of the
carrier for each symbol and it is less sensitive to
noise.
 By Way of Introduction………..

• Problem of radio transmission:

–frequency dependent fading can wipe out
narrow band signals for duration of the
interference
• Solution:
–spread the narrow band signal into a broad
band signal using a special code
 3. Spread Spectrum
• Spread Spectrum (SS) is a technique used for
transmitting radio or telecommunications signals.
• Practice of spreading the transmitted signal to
occupy a frequency band much wider than the
minimum bandwidth required for transmission.
• In SS, signals are combined from different
sources to fit into a larger bandwidth
• Spread spectrum is an important component of
code division multiple access (CDMA)
technology, which is used in cellular
telecommunications.
• In CDMA, a pseudo-random spreading code is
used to spread the signal within the available
bandwidth.
 Spread Spectrum
• The goal is to prevent eavesdropping and
jamming.
– SS techniques achieve this goal by adding redundancy.
• The advantages of spectrum spreading include
noise reduction, security and resistance to
jamming and interception
• Types
– Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS)

– Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum Synchronous (DSSS)

 Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum
(FHSS)
• FHSS - a signal is transmitted in short bursts,
"hopping" between frequencies in a pseudo-
random sequence
• Symbols or packets are transmitted on different
frequency carriers each time
• Both the transmitting device and the
receiving device must be aware of the
spread (frequency) sequence.
• Types
–Slow frequency hopping – the same
frequency carrier is used over several bits or
a packet (common)
–Fast frequency hopping – the frequency
carrier is changed within a symbol period
Figure 6.28 Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum
(FHSS)
Figure 6.29 Frequency selection in Frequency Hopping
Spread Spectrum
Bandwidth Sharing
Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum cycles
 Examples of FHSS System

• GSM (2G Cellular)

–Very slow hopping
• Original IEEE 802.11
–Slow hopping
• Bluetooth
–Also slow hopping over 79 frequencies
–Per packet hopping
• Advantages of FHSS
–Eavesdroppers hear only unintelligible
blips
–Attempts to jam signal on one frequency
succeed only at knocking out a few bits
 Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)

• Each bit in original signal is represented by

multiple bits in the transmitted signal
• Spreading code spreads signal across a
wider frequency band
– Spread is in direct proportion to number of bits used
• Instead of transmitting a rectangular pulse
for a zero or a one, a sequence of
narrower rectangular pulses is transmitted
instead
– The narrow pulses are called “chips”
• Each information symbol is “chipped”
into a pattern of smaller symbols - spread
code/sequence
Figure 6.33 DSSS Example
 Examples of DSSS System

• 2G CDMA systems
– IS-95, cdma2000
• All 3G cellular systems
– UMTS and HSPA
• The legacy IEEE 802.11 (WiFi)
b. Communication Interface
– Terminals are largely self-contained
– The RS 232C interface is connected directly to a modem to
establish a communication link
• RS-232C is the interface that your computer uses to exchange data
with your modem and other serial devices
• RS-232 defines the connection between data terminal equipment
(DTE) and data circuit-terminating equipment (DCE).
– In connecting a modem to a computer at the other end, it is
necessary to include a hardware interface between the line
or modem and the I/0 Bus.
• These interfaces are called multiplexers
Fig. 4 – Communication Interface
A typical interface performs the following
functions:
i. Parallel-serial conversion
ii. Level Conversion
iii. Error Detection & Status Monitoring
c. Multiplexers
– A digital or communications multiplexer is a device
that permits several communications terminals to
share the same communications channel, thus
leading to large savings on line rental cos t.
– Multiplexers allow simultaneous transmission of
multiple signals along a single channel .

– Scarcity or limited bandwidth available for data

transmissions, coupled with the cost of the
equipment. necessitates the need for multiplexers
 MULTIPLEXING

• Whenever the bandwidth of a medium

linking two devices is greater than the
bandwidth needs of the devices, the link
can be shared.
– Multiplexing is the set of techniques that allows the
simultaneous transmission of multiple signals across
a single data link.
• Like modems, multiplexers perform two
basic functions of multiplexing and
demultiplexing
• Data signals from several devices (source)
are multiplexed (combined) into a single
stream (many to one) and transmitted
through the available bandwidth.
• At the destination they are demultiplexed
into their original data streams (one to
many).
• There are three multiplexing techniques:
i. Frequency-Division multiplexing
(FDM)
ii. Wave-Division multiplexing
(WDM)
iii. Time-Division multiplexing (TDM)
• FDM and WDM are applicable to analog
signals, while TDM is applicable to digital
signals
i. Frequency-Division
Multiplexing (FDM)
– This analog multiplexing technique is
applicable whenever the total required
bandwidth of the transmitter is less or
lower than the available bandwidth of the
link.
– Thus, each signal from the transmitters
are modulated into different carrier
frequencies say f1, f2, f3, f4, etc and later
combined as one single composite signal
that can be transmitted over the available
link.
At the destination, the multiplexed signals are
filtered back into their original frequencies
through a demultiplexer after which they are
demodulated by separating them from the carriers
and passed to their respective destinations.

FDM
• Advantages of FDM:
–No dynamic coordination needed
–Works also for analog signals
• Disadvantages of FDM:
–Waste of bandwidth if traffic distributed
unevenly
–Inflexible
–Guard spaces (bands)
ii. Wavelemgth-Division
Multiplexing (WDM)
• This analog multiplexing technique is
designed for higher data rate media like fibre-
optic cable.
• The multiplexing and demultiplexing schemes
are similar to the FDM with the exception that
optical signals are involved.
• Very narrow bands of optical signals from
various transmitting devices are combined to
make a wider band of light transmitted over
the link and demultiplexed at the destination
into their original forms.
Multiplexing and demultiplexing of light signals are
achieved through a prism.

WDM
Prisms in wavelength-division multiplexing and de-
multiplexing
• Advantages of WDM
– Is a quite simple technique.
– The optical link provides greater bandwidth.
– It allows secured transmission of optical signal.
– This technique increases the signal carrying capacity of
the system.

• Disadvantages of WDM
– The presence of optical component increases the
overall cost of the system.
– Proper wavelength spacing must be required otherwise
it will lead to signal interference.
 iii. Time –Division
Multiplexing (TDM)

• This digital multiplexing technique uses a

single frequency band to transmit digital
signals from the transmitter.
• Each transmitter is allocated a time slot to
transmit in rotation until a cycle is completed.
A particular transmitter may not transmit
within the time frame, thus at the expiration
of the allotted time the next device is
considered.
 TDM Cont’d
• The transmitted signals are de-multiplexed at
the destination into the individual signals and
distributed to the respective destinations.
• In TDM, time is shared as against the FDM
where a portion of the bandwidth is shared.
• The technique is mostly used in a
synchronous communication
Some time slots may not be used by some
transmitters, leading to underutilization of
the link, which is wasteful. Hence, this
method is otherwise referred to as
synchronous TDM.
• Advantages of TDM:
–Only one carrier in the medium at any
time
–Throughput high even for many users
• Disadvantages of TDM:
–Precise synchronization is necessary
iv. Synchronous Time-Division Multiplexing

Each transmitting device is

allocated a time slot one after
another in rotation until a cycle is
completed.
 Series of cycles are repeated until
all the signals are transmitted.
An expiration of an allotted time
occurs when a particular device did
not transmit within the time frame.
Some time slots may not be utilized by some
transmitting devices, thereby under utilizing
the capacity of the link leading to waste.

Hence, this method is otherwise referred

to as synchronous TDM.
Synchronous Time-division Multiplexing
In synchronous TDM, the data rate
of the link is n times faster, and the unit duration
is n times shorter.
To avoid the wastage associated with the
synchronous TDM, another technique is
employed. This is called Asynchronous TDM or
Statistical TDM.
iv. Statistical TDM
• More advanced time-based multiplexing technique
that allocates more time to some transmitting
devices than some of the others.
– An idle device or channel is not allocated any time

• Number of time slots assigned to a frame is based

on a statistical analysis of the number of input
lines that are likely to transmit at given time.
– Rather than a pre-assignment of time slots, a cyclic
polling and transfer of input streams from each
device can be based is first come first served
protocol
To avoid the wastage associated with the
synchronous TDM, the asynchronous
TDM or statistical TDM is employed.

Stat -TDM
 Review Questions

1. What is Data Communication? Distinguish between analog

and digital communications.
2. Explain briefly the modes and methods of Data
Transmission.
3. Distinguish between asynchronous and synchronous
transmissions.
4. List and explain the importance of some communications
hardware.
5. Explain briefly the following multiplexing techniques:
• FDM
• WDM
• TDM
• Stat-TDM