INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER

Chapter 7
Computer Networks
Computer Networks
Chapter 7 – Computer Networks
 Computer Networks
• A collection of computers and other devices connected together via
communication devices and communication channels for sharing information
and resources is called a computer network
• Resources may include printers, scanners, and storage devices (such as hard
disks)
• Examples of transmission media are cables and wirelessly or Wi-Fi
• Connected computers/devices in the network can be in the same room,
building, or at different locations
• A computer network can be simple or very large
• In a large computer network, usually many computer networks are connected
together
• This type of network is called a network of networks
• Internet is the most well-known example of a network of networks
 Uses/Benefits of Computer Network
Communication
• People can communicate with each other around the world through computer
networks
• They can talk and share information with each other using different network
services such as email, social networking, video conferencing, groupware and
SMS service
Data Sharing
• Different users connected to the computer network can share data among them
• For example, on the Internet, a large number of users can access the same
database
Software Sharing
• In a computer network, usually, application software and other software are
installed on the central computer (i.e. server computer)
• These software can be shared over a network instead of purchasing a separate
 Uses of Computer Network
Hardware Sharing
• In a computer network, hardware devices such as printers, scanners and hard
disks can be shared among different users
• For example, many users can share a single printer connected to a network
• An organization can save a lot of money by sharing different devices over a
network
• Without the facility of network, these devices have to be arranged separately
for each user
• It becomes very costly for an organization
Internet Sharing
• In a computer network (i.e. LAN), many users can access the Internet through
a single Internet connection and can use its different services
Uses of Computer Network
Data Security
• Computer network provides centralized data storage
• It means that all data is stored on the central computer. So , security features can also be
implemented on the data very easily
Saving Disk Space
• In a computer network, all computers use the same copy of application programs and data
files
• These are only stored on the hard disk(s) of the server computer
• There is no need to store application programs and data files on individual computers on
the network
• In this way, disk space on each computer is saved
Uses of Computer Network
Entertainment
• Computer network provides many sources of entertainment to the people
• For example, we can play different types of games, see movies, and listen to
music. We can also make new friends on the Internet.
Types of Network
Chapter 7 – Computer Networks
Types of Network
• Computer networks are divided into the following types based on the size and
physical area or distance covered by the network:
• Local Area Network
• Wide Area Network
• Metropolitan Area Network
• Personal Area Network (PAN)
Local Area Network (LAN)
• Local Area Network (LAN) is a type of computer network that covers a small area
• It is generally limited to a building or group of adjacent buildings
• It consists of a limited number of computers
• LAN is designed to share different resources (such as printers, scanners, storage devices,
and application programs) between computers
• Network of computers in the computer laboratory of a college and network of computers
in an office building are examples of LANs
• In LAN, nodes (computers and other devices such as printers and scanners) are connected
to each other using cables or wireless transmission medium
• Network Interface Card (NIC) is used in each computer to
connect it to a LAN
• Network card enables computer to share information with
other computers connected to the LAN
• Data transmission rate through LAN is very fast
• It is from 10 Mbps to 1 Gbps
Local Area Network (LAN)
+Resource Sharing
+ For example, many users on network can use a single printer
+ Similarly, storage media and software located in the central server can be shared
between all users on the network
+Inexpensive
+ Small businesses, firms, and educational institutes can afford and easily install the LAN
+Communication
+ Users can easily communicate with each other
+ They can also share data among them
+Centralized Data
+ All data is stored and updated on the central server through nodes
+ So it becomes very easy to take a backup of the database at regular intervals
Local Area Network (LAN)
+Internet Access Sharing
+ Multiple users can access the Internet using a single Internet connection
+ Internet connection is established at the central server
+ In this way, all users can access the Internet
+Data Security
+ Data security can be implemented very easily because users are granted data access
rights
+ Authorized users can connect to the server and can access a specific portion of the data
+Speed
+ Data transmission in a LAN is very fast
+Reliability
+ It is a very reliable network
+ Communication errors are very rare
Local Area Network (LAN)
- If the central server is infected by a virus, then important data and software
stored on the server may be corrupted and entire network may also be
affected
- All nodes depend on central device (or Hub), if it fails, then entire network will
stop working
- A trained and competent network manager is required to run LAN, so a
handsome salary has to be paid to him. Therefore, it becomes very expensive
to run the LAN
- Mostly in a LAN, one or two printers are shared among several users. In this
situation, lengthy print queues are created. So the users have to wait for a
long period of time to take print on the printer.
Wide Area Network (WAN)
• A Wide Area Network (WAN) is a type of computer network that covers a large area
such as different cities of the country or different countries and continents of the
world
• Typically, a WAN consists of many LANs connected together across a wide
geographical area
• Internet is the world’s largest WAN
• It connects many thousands of computers and LANs around the world and making it a web
• WAN is expensive than LAN but its transmission rate is slower than LAN
• In WAN, computers and other devices are often connected through telephone lines
• However, they can also be connected through microwave or satellite systems
• A modem is used in computers to establish communication between computers over
a long distance
• WANs are used in large organizations
• For example, in Pakistan, large organizations like PIA, WAPDA, ARMY, NADRA, and
Wide Area Network (WAN)
+ Covers Large Area
+ WAN covers a large geographical area so long-distance businesses can connect on the network
+ Users can access the network from any location of the country or world
+ Sharing and Communicating Messages
+ Messages can be shared and communicated all over the world
+ These messages can have text, pictures, and sounds
+ For example, users can communicate and share messages through video conference
+ Centralized Data
+ Data of an organization is stored in a single location even if the organization is spread all over
the world (or different cities of the country)
+ Everyone on the network can use the same data
+ This avoids problems where some users may have older information than others
+ Entertainment
+ WAN provides many sources of entertainment to users
+ For example, users can play different types of games, see movies, and listen to music over
Wide Area Network (WAN)
- Hardware and Software Costs
- WAN becomes expensive to install
- Devices and software that are required for installing WAN are very costly.
- Management and Staff Training Costs
- Managing WAN is complicated
- Trained and competent network managers/supervisors and technicians are required to
run the WAN
- So handsome salaries have to be paid to them
- Therefore, it becomes very expensive to run the WAN
- Training is required at all levels, including network managers/administrators
- Organization has to pay a lot of amount on the training of staff to run the network
Wide Area Network (WAN)
- Slow for Data Transmission
- Its data transmission rate is from 56 Kbps to 50 Mbps
- Security Issue
- Protection against hackers and viruses is not an easy job
- It needs a good firewall to restrict outsiders from entering and disrupting the network
- Firewall is a security system consisting of hardware and/or software to prevent unauthorized access
of a network or computer
- Viruses can also spread very quickly and easily through WAN
- Failure of Server and Communication Line
- If a server fails, entire network is affected
- Similarly, a failure in communication line may also stop the working of WAN
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
• A Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) is a network system that covers the area of a
city or town
• Usually, MAN consists of two or more LANs in a city or town which are connected
together
• For example, a company may design a MAN by connecting all the LANs in all its
office throughout the city
• The cable television companies, telephone companies, and Internet Service
Providers use MAN
• Mobile phones (cellular) systems often use a MAN
• MAN is larger than LAN and smaller than WAN
• It covers an area of between 5 to 50 km diameter
• A MAN uses different transmission media (wired or wireless) and devices for
communication
• In most of MANs, fiber optic cables are used as transmission media
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
+It covers a larger area than LAN
+It requires fewer resources as compared to WAN. This saves implementation cost
+It provides high-speed communication
+Resources can be shared among different users all over the city
+Its installation and maintenance is less expensive than WAN
+It provides higher security as compared to WAN
- It is more expensive than LAN
- It becomes difficult to manage if the network becomes large
- Network installation requires skilled technicians and network administrators. This
increases the overall installation and management costs
Personal Area Network (PAN)
• A personal area network (PAN) is a network that connects personal computers
and devices using wired and wireless technology
• Computers/devices are typically located within a range of about 30 feet
• Devices may include smartphones, digital cameras, printers, telephones,
tablets, and PDAs
• A PAN may connect devices through a router using network cables or directly
using special USB cables
• PANs also may use Bluetooth or Wi-Fi technology
 LAN WAN
• It covers a small geographical area • It covers a large geographical area
• Computers are directly connected through • Computers are connected through a
physical cable or wireless connection telephone line or microwave system
• In LAN, connection is permanent using cables • In WAN, connection is not permanent
• A network card is used in each computer for • Modem or router is used in each computer
data transmission between computers for data transmission between computers
• Its data transmission speed is faster than WAN • Its data transmission speed is slower than
• Its installation and configuration cost is less LAN
than WAN • Its installation and configuration cost is
• It has less possibility of data transmission greater than LAN
errors
• It has a higher possibility of data
• In LAN, normally problems occur due to cable transmission errors
disturbance
• In WAN, normally problems occur due to
• In LAN, computers can be connected in a telephone lines, or other wireless media
limited area
• In WAN, computers can be connected
Network Architectures
Chapter 7 – Computer Networks
Network Architectures
• Network architecture is the design or layout of computers, devices, and media
in a computer network
• Computer network can be designed using different ways
• Most popular network architectures are:
• Client-server network
• Peer-to-peer (P2P) network
• Hybrid network
Client-Server Network
• A network architecture in which one or more computers act as servers and
other computers act as clients is called a client-server network
• In this network, servers are not used as clients and clients never act as servers
• Both wired and wireless networks can be configured as a client-server
network
• The server is a powerful computer
• It is also called a host computer
• It controls the whole network and provides services to the clients
• It also provides a centralized storage area for data & software and centralized
security to ensure that resources are not accessed by unauthorized users
Client-Server Network
• A client-server network may consist of two or more servers
• Each server performs only one specific task
• A server that performs only a specific task in the network is called a dedicated
server
• File Server  Stores and manages files
• Print Server  Manages printers and print jobs
• Database Server  Stores and manages databases. It also provides access to databases
• Application Server  Stores and distributes application software on the network
• Network Server  Manages network activity (or network traffic)
• Web Server  Stores web pages. It also receives requests from clients, processes the
requests, and sends the results of requests to clients
• Email Server  Stores and handles incoming and outgoing email messages
Client-Server Network
• All computers and mobile devices other than the server(s) in the client-server
network are called clients
• They can be PCs and laptops or other mobile computers or devices
• Users run applications on the clients
• For example, users send requests to the server through clients
• Server receives requests from clients and takes proper actions on these
requests
• The results of the requests are sent to the clients
• Clients depend on the server for different resources like centralized storage,
printing, and data processing, etc.
Client-Server Network
+It provides faster responses to the clients
+It allows using less expensive computers as clients because most of the work
is done by the server
+It provides centralized security/management
+It provides the facility to easy backup of data
- More powerful computer is required to install as server
- So it becomes very costly
- The entire network may be affected if there is any problem on the server
Peer-to-Peer Network
• A network architecture in which all computers on the network have equal status and no
one has control over others is called a peer-to-peer network (or simply P2P network)
• In this network architecture, each computer or mobile device is called a peer
• Each peer can act as both a server and client at the same time
• Both wired and wireless networks can be configured as a peer-to-peer network
• In peer-to-peer network architecture, there is no central computer to control other
computers on the network
• Each computer can share data and devices (or resources) of other computers in the
network
• For example, a printer attached to any computer can be used by all computers connected to the
network
• Each computer stores its data and program files because P2P does not have a common
file server
• Peer-to-peer network is a simple and low-cost network
• It normally consists of less than 10 computers
Peer-to-Peer Network
+It is useful in small offices
+It is easy to design and to maintain
+It does not require any powerful computer
- It becomes slow under heavy use
- There is no central place for storing data and software
- In this network, data is not stored on a central computer
- So it provides less security
Hybrid Network
• Hybrid network has combined features of both client-server and peer-to-peer
networks
• It also has one or more servers
• Users can share data and software
• Similarly, each node can store its own data files and programs and has its own
peripheral devices
• Users can also share each other’s data and devices
 Client – Server Network Peer – to – Peer Network
• Each computer is called either a server • Each computer is called a peer
or a client • No computer act as a server
• One or more computers act as servers • There is no dedicated server or central
• There is one or more dedicated servers computer to control other computers
that control the other computers on the on the network
network
• It consists of less than ten computers
• It may consist of many computers
• Each computer stores its data and
• Mostly data and program files are stored program files
on the dedicated server
• Data cannot be managed easily because
• Data can be managed very easily data is stored on different computers
because all data is stored on a dedicated
server • It is useful in small offices/businesses
• It is used in large organizations • Data is not stored on a central
computer. So it does not provide proper
• Data is stored on a central computer. So
data security
Network Topologies
Chapter 7 – Computer Networks
Network Topologies
• In networking, term topology is the way of connecting computers or nodes on
a network
• There are many ways in which computers can be connected together in a
computer network
• Way in which computers or other devices are connected in a network is called
network topology
• Shortly term network topology refers to the physical layout or shape of
network
• Commonly used network topologies
• Bus topology
• Star topology
• Ring topology
• Tree topology
• Mesh topology
Bus Topology
• In a Bus topology, all nodes are connected to a common communication
medium
• Usually, a central cable is used as a communication medium
• This cable is called Bus
• This cable is the backbone of the topology
• Nodes are connected to the Bus through an interface connector
• Both ends of the cable are closed with terminators
• A terminator is a special small device that absorbs data signals (or prevents
data signals)
• Bus topology is suitable for small networks
Bus Topology
Working of Bus Topology
• When a sending computer wants to send a message, it has to determine
whether the media is in use or free
• If no other device is transmitting the data, it sends a message to the destination
computer
• Address of the destination computer is also attached to the message
• This message moves from one computer to another through the bus
• Each computer connected to the network receives the message, checks the
attached address
• If the attached message matches with the address of the computer, then it
accepts the message
• Otherwise, the message moves toward the next computer
Bus Topology
+Very simple network
+Easy to install and to maintain
+Less expensive because it requires a single cable to connect devices
+When nodes are added and removed in the network, network is not affected
+If one node fails in the network, other nodes are not affected
- Entire network fails if there is any problem with the bus (central cable)
- It supports only a small number of nodes. So it is not suitable for a large
network
Star Topology
• In a star network, all nodes are directly connected to a central device, called Hub or Switch
• This central device controls all the traffic
• Usually, nodes are connected to the Hub with unshielded twisted pair (UTP) cable
• Shape of the Star network looks like a star
• Star topology is most commonly used in LAN

Working of Star Topology

• Computers communicate with each other through a central device i.e. hub
• Sending computer sends data to the central device
• Central device sends data to the receiving computer
• In this way, data is transferred from one computer to another in the Star network
Star Topology
+Easy to install and to maintain
+Nodes can easily be added or removed without affecting the network
+If any node or cable fails then the rest of the network is not affected
+It is easy to detect and remove faults in the network
+It is suitable for small and large networks

- This type of network depends upon the central device. If this device fails,
whole network breaks down
- It requires more cables than any other networks. So it becomes more costly.
- Increased cost also due to hub etc.
Ring Topology
• In a ring topology, each node is connected to next node and last node is connected
to first
• Thus, shape of the network is formed just like a ring
Working of Ring Topology
• In Ring topology, a token is passed around the network
• Computer that has control of the token can transmit data/message
• When a computer sends a message to another computer on the network, message
flows from one computer to the next computer
• Every computer receives a message from previous computer and retransmits it to
the next computer until the destination computer receives the message
• Destination computer sends an acknowledgment of receiving a message to the
sender computer
• Sender computer then releases the token back to the network
Ring Topology
+Less expensive to implement
+Easy to install and to maintain
+All computers have equal access to the network
+Every computer regenerates/refreshes the data signal that’s why it can travel
over a longer distance

- If one node fails (or the ring is broken at any point), the entire network stops
functioning.
- Adding or removing a computer in the network affects the whole network and
no message can be communicated at that time.
Tree Topology
• Tree topology has combined features of both bus
and star topologies
• Whole network is divided into segments
• Each segment represents a Star topology
• All segments (i.e. Star topologies) are combined
through central cable or bus
• Thus, Bus topology works as the backbone of the
Tree network
• Tree network looks like a tree structure
• In Tree topology network, usually, multiple hubs
are used
• Each hub controls the nodes directly connected to
it and exchanges data among them
• It also exchanges data to other devices connected
to the other hubs
Tree Topology
• Example  cable TV network
+Its existing network can be expanded very
easily (i.e. easily scalable)
+Each segment of the network can be easily
managed and maintained
+If one segment fails, other segments are
not affected
+Errors detection and correction is easy
- More expensive because more hubs are
required to be installed in the network
- It relies on the central cable or bus. If it
breaks, the whole network is affected.
Mesh Topology
• In the Mesh topology, each node is directly connected
to every other node on the network
• This type of network involves the concept of routes
• Mesh topology is rarely used in LAN
• It is mostly used in WANs like the Internet use mesh
topology
• In Mesh topology, each node can send a message to
the destination through multiple paths
• It means that each node of the Mesh network has
several possible paths to send or to receive a message,
but in Bus, Star, and Ring topologies each node has
only one path
• Data always travels through the best-suited path
Mesh Topology
+It provides multiple routes. If one route is blocked,
then another suitable route can be used for data
communication.
+Troubleshooting of this topology is easy as compared
with other networks

- It becomes very expensive because a large number of

cabling and I/O ports are required
- It is difficult to install and configure. Its maintenance is
also difficult.
Data Communication
Chapter 7 – Computer Networks
Data Communication
• Process of transferring data from one location to another in a networking
environment is called data communication
• In this process, data is transmitted from one location to another by using
transmission media and communication devices such as transmitter and
receiver
• Today, computer networks are commonly used for data communication
Components of Data Communication
• Message
• Sender
• Receiver
• Communication media or channel
• Protocol
Components of Data Communication
Message
• Information or data to be communicated
• It may consist of text, numbers, pictures, sounds, videos, or a combination of these
Sender
• A device that is used for sending messages (or data) over a network is called a sender
• It is also called a transmitter or sending device or source
• Sender can be a desktop computer, laptop, smartphone, camera, and fax machine
Receiver
• A device that is used for receiving messages from sending device on the network is
called a receiver
• It is also called a receiving device or sink
• Receiver can be a desktop computer, laptop, television set, smartphone, printer, and
fax machine
Components of Data Communication
Communication Media or Channel
• Path through which message is transmitted from one location to another (source to
destination) is called communication media
• It is also called a communication channel
• It can be a twisted pair cable or telephone cable, coaxial cable, and fiber optic cable
• It can also be a wireless media such as Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, microwave, radio wave, and satellite
• If the sender and receiver are within a building, a wire may be used as the medium
• If they are located at different locations, then a medium may be a telephone line, fiber optics,
microwave, or satellite system
Protocol
• A network protocol is a set of rules that defines a procedure for communication between a
sender and a receiver
• Without a protocol, two devices may be connected but not communicating
• A protocol defines
• How the communication channel is established?
• How data/message is transmitted?
Communication Channel
Chapter 7 – Computer Networks
Communication Channel
• A path through which data is transmitted from one place to another is called
a communication channel
• It is also known as communication media or transmission media
• Examples  standard telephone line, twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable, fiber
optic cable, microwave, and satellite
• In a communication channel, data is transmitted in the form of signals
• Amount of data that can be transmitted through the communication
medium in a unit of time is called bandwidth
• Bandwidth of analog signals is measured in cycles per second or Hertz (Hz)
• Bandwidth of digital signals is measured in bits per second (bps)
Types of Communication Channel
• Guided Media
• Unguided Media
Communication Channel
Guided Media
• The type of communication media in which communication devices are
directly linked with each other via cables or physical media is called guided
media
• Guided communication media is also known as physical transmission media
• Data signals are bounded to a cabling media
• Therefore, guided media is also called bounded media
• Guided media are usually used in LAN
• Examples of guided or bounded media are twisted pair cable, coaxial cable,
and fiber optic cable
Guided Media
Twisted Pair Cable
• Twisted pair cable is one of the most commonly used communication media
• It is used for short-distance digital data transmission
• Its data transmission speed is about 9600 bits per second at a distance of
100 meters
• It is commonly used in local area network (LAN)
• It is also used in telephone lines to carry voice and data signals
• Twisted pair cable consists of a pair of copper wires
• These wires are covered by insulating material (such as plastic)
• Wires are twisted together in pairs
• Twisting of wires protects them from interference by external
electromagnetic waves
Guided Media
Coaxial Cable
• Coaxial cable is also called Coax
• Coaxial cables are mostly used for long-distance transmission
• These cables are mainly used for cable TV, telephone network, and local
area network
• These cables provide very high-quality data transmission without distortion
or loss of data
• These cables can transfer data with very high frequency
• Bandwidth of the coaxial cable is 80 times greater than that of twisted pair
cable
• These cables can transmit data with 10 to 100 megabits per second (Mbps)
• Coaxial cables are more expensive than twisted-pair cables
Guided Media
Coaxial Cable
• Coaxial cable consists of a single solid copper wire, which is called the inner
conductor
• Usually, inner conductor is surrounded by three layers
• Inner Insulating layer  It covers the inner conductor
• Copper Mesh  Mesh means net. It is a net of wire. It serves as ground. It reduces
electromagnetic interference.
• Outer Insulating layer  It covers the copper mesh
• These layers protect the cable from interference by external electromagnetic
waves
• Whole cable is protected by a plastic cover
Guided Media
Fiber Optic Cable
• Fiber optic cable is a very fast communication medium
• It consists of hundreds or thousands of thin strands (threads) of glass or
plastic
• Each strand is called optical fiber or core
• It is as thin as a human hair
• Each optical fiber or core is surrounded by a layer of glass called cladding
• Cladding is further protected by a plastic coating called Jacket
• An important characteristic (or property) of fiber optic is refraction
• Refraction is the characteristic of a material to either pass or reflect light
Guided Media
Fiber Optic Cable
• Fiber optic cable transmits data in the form of light waves
• In fiber optics communication, converters are used on both sides
• Converter at transmitter side converts data from digital signals into light waves and
transmits over the fiber optics
• Converter at the receiver side receives data in the form of light waves and converts back
into digital form
• Fiber optic cable provides high-quality transmission at a very high speed
• It is up to billions of bits per second (usually 1Gbps to 2Gbps)
• Fiber optic transmission is not affected by electromagnetic waves
• Both analog and digital signals (i.e. both voice and digital data) can be transmitted
through fiber optic cable
• It is more reliable and has lower data transmission errors
• However, it is costly and difficult to install
• Today, many telephone and cable TV companies are using fiber optic cables in their
Unguided Media
• The type of communication media in which communication devices send
and receive data signals through air or space is called unguided media
• It is also called wireless transmission media
• In this type of communication media data is communicated between
communication devices in the form of a wave
• The data signals are not bounded to a cabling media
• Therefore, unguided media is also called unbounded media
• Unguided transmission medium is used when it is impossible to install the
cables
• Data can be transmitted all over the world through this medium
• Examples of unguided or wireless transmission media are microwave
transmission, a communication satellite, broadcast radio, and cellular radio
Unguided Media
Microwave Transmission
• Microwaves are radio waves that provide very high-speed transmission
• Data is transmitted through air or space (like radio signals), instead of
through cables or wires
• A microwave uses line-of-sight transmission through space
• Line-of-sight means that data signals (or waves) can only travel in straight lines and
cannot bend
Unguided Media
Microwave Transmission
• In microwave system, data is transmitted and received through microwave stations
• A microwave station is also called a relay station or booster
• Each relay station consists of an antenna, transmitter, receiver, and other equipment that
are necessary for microwave transmission
• Antennas are usually installed on the high towers or buildings usually 40 to 50 feet above
the earth
• These are placed within a distance of 20 to 30 miles to each other
• There may be many relay stations (boosters) between the sender and receiver
• Data is transmitted from one relay station to another
• Each relay station receives data signals from the previous relay station, amplifies these
signals, and retransmits to the next relay station
• In this way, data is transmitted over larger distances
• Today, microwave transmission system is used by telephone companies, and cable
Unguided Media
Communication Satellite
• Satellite communication is mostly used for long-distance communication
• It has a very fast data transmission speed
• Satellite communication system consists of satellites and
many earth-based stations
• Communication satellites are space stations
• They serve as relay stations for the transmission of information
• They are approximately 22,300 miles above the earth
• Each earth station consists of a dish antenna
• Earth station can send and receive data signals
• Satellite receives microwave signals (or messages) from the earth station
• It amplifies the signals and retransmits them to another earth station which can be located
thousands of miles away
• This entire process takes only a few seconds
Unguided Media
Communication Satellite
• Transmitting a signal from the ground or earth station to a satellite station in
space is called up-linking
• Transmitting a signal from a satellite station in space to a ground or earth
station is called the down-linking
• Main advantage of a satellite communication system is that a large amount
of data can be communicated at once
• Disadvantage of satellite communication is that bad weather can affect the
quality of satellite transmission
• This communication system is also very costly to install and to maintain
• Nowadays, different communication satellites are used for different kinds of
applications such as telephone calls, television, and radio broadcasting,
military communication, collecting weather data, global positioning systems,
Unguided Media
Broadcast Radio
• Broadcast radio is a wireless transmission medium
• It is used to communicate information through radio signals in the air, over a long
and short distances such as between cities, countries, within an office or home
• In this medium, a transmitter is required to send messages (signals) and a receiver to
receive them
• To receive radio signal, receiver has an antenna that is located in the range of the
signal
• Some networks use a special device called a transceiver that can both send and
receive messages in the form of radio signals
• Bluetooth is an example of short-range and FM radio is an example of long range
broadcast radio communication
• It uses short-range radio waves to transmit data among Bluetooth-enabled devices
• It can transmit data at a rate of 1 Mbps
Communication Devices
Chapter 7 – Computer Networks
Communication Devices
• An electronic device that is used for sending and receiving data between the
sending device and receiving device is called a communication device
NIC
• NIC stands for Network-Interface Card
• NIC is a communication device that is used to connect a computer to a LAN
• It is also called a LAN card
• NIC is a circuit board which is installed on the motherboard
• A computer must have a network card (NIC) to connect to the LAN
• Nowadays, most computer systems have built-in network card into the
motherboard
HUB & Switch
• Hub and Switch are communication devices
• Both provide a central connection point for connecting computers/nodes
together in a computer network
• They have multiple ports to which computers are connected
• Typically, Hub does not manage any of the traffic that comes through it
• It broadcast data packets to every computer/node
• Only the receiver computer/node accepts the message and other
computers/nodes ignore the message
• A switch is like a Hub but it is more intelligent than the Hub
• It records the addresses of the computers connected to it in a table
• It sends a message to the receiver computer/node only
Modem
• Modem stands for modulator and demodulator
• It is a commonly used communication device that converts digital signals into
analog signals and vice versa
• It is used to send and receive data between two computers through the
telephone line
• Both sending and receiving computers must have modems
• Data is stored inside the digital computers in digital form
• However, data is transmitted over the telephone line in the form of analog signals
• Sending computer sends data to the receiving computer as follows:
• Modem of sending a computer converts digital signals into analog signals and sends it to
the receiving computer through a telephone line. The process of converting digital signals
into analog signals is called modulation
• Modem of receiving computer receives data from the telephone line in the form of analog
signals. It converts these signals into digital signals and enters in the computer. The
process of converting the analog signals into digital form is called demodulation
Modem
• A modem can be fixed inside the system unit
• It can also be a separate device outside the system unit
• Modem which is fixed inside the system unit is called an internal modem
• Modem which is outside the system unit is called an external modem
• External modem is very easy to set up and can easily be moved from one
computer to another
• It is also very fast and has advanced features than an internal modem
• However, it is more expensive than an internal modem
Router
• Routers are used to connect two or more
different or similar networks and transfers data
packets from one network to another
• Networks can be LANs or WANs
• Router stores addressing information (routing
information) of each computer on the connected
networks
• When a router receives a packet of data, it looks
at the address attached with the data packet
where the packet of data is to be sent
• It determines the best route (path) to forward
the data packet at its destination and then sends
it accordingly that’s why its called intelligent
device
Gateway
• A gateway is a communication device (or networking device)
• It is used to connect two different types of networks (i.e. networks that use
different protocols)
• It is an intelligent device
• It translates data from one format to the other
• Different networks may have different types of data and of different formats
• Gateway receives a data packet from one type of network
• It reads the address of the computer on the networks where the data packet is
to be sent
• It converts the data packet into a format that the destination computer can
understand
• For example, computers connected to a LAN require a gateway to access the
Internet. So every computer does have a gateway and it can work like both
Bridge
• A bridge is a communication electronic device that is used to connect two
similar network segments
• A segment is a part of a network
• It also controls the data flow between them
• When a bridge receives a message, it reads the addresses of both the sender
and receiver
• If the sender and receiver are in the same network segment, the bridge does
not pass the message to the other network segment
• The message is directly sent to the receiver
• The bridge, therefore, reduces network traffic
• So the performance of the network is increased
 OSI Reference Model
• OSI Reference Model - internationally standardised network architecture.
• OSI = Open Systems Interconnection: deals with open systems, i.e. systems
open for communications with other systems.
• Model has 7 layers.
 7-Layer OSI Model
Layer 7 Application Layer • Layers 1-4 relate to communications
technology.
Layer 6 Presentation Layer
• Layers 5-7 relate to user applications.
Layer 5 Session Layer

Layer 4 Transport Layer

Layer 3 Network Layer

Layer 2 Data Link Layer

Layer 1 Physical Layer

 Layer 7: Application Layer
• Level at which applications access network services.
• Represents services that directly support software applications for file transfers,
database access, and electronic mail etc.

• Most of what the user actually interacts with is at this layer. Web browsers and
other internet-connected applications (like Skype or Outlook) use Layer 7
application protocols.
 Layer 6: Presentation Layer
• Providing services for secure efficient data transmission
• e.g. data encryption, data formatting and data compression.
 Layer 5: Session Layer
• Allows two applications on different computers to establish,
use, and end a session.
• e.g. file transfer, remote login
 Layer 4: Transport Layer
• Manages transmission packets
• Breaks down long messages when necessary into small packets
for transmission
• Reassembles packets in correct order to get the original message.
• Handles error recognition and recovery.
• Transport layer at receiving acknowledges packet delivery.
• Resends missing packets
 Layer 3: Network Layer
• Manages addressing/routing of data within the subnet
• This layer determines how data is sent to the receiving device. It’s
responsible for packet forwarding, routing, and addressing.
• Translates logical addresses (IP address) into physical addresses
(MAC address).
 Layer 2: Data Link Layer
· Packages raw bits from the Physical layer into frames
(Framing)
· Provides reliable transmission of frames
· It waits for an acknowledgment from the receiving computer.
· Retransmits frames for which acknowledgement not received
(Error control)
· Flow control
 Layer 1: Physical Layer
• Transmits bits from one computer to another
• Regulates the transmission of a stream of bits over a
physical medium.
• Defines how the cable is attached to the network adapter
and what transmission technique is used to send data over
the cable. Deals with issues like
• The definition of 0 and 1, e.g. how many volts represents a 1?
• Whether the channel is simplex or duplex?
• How many pins a connector has, and what the function of each pin is?
Analog and Digital Signals
• Analog Signal
• An continuously varying electromagnetic wave that may be propagated over a variety of
media (e.g., twisted pair or coaxial cable etc.)
• Digital Signal
• A sequence of voltage pulses that may be transmitted over a wire medium, e.g., a constant
positive voltage level may represent binary 0 and a constant negative voltage level may
represent binary 1.
• Advantages of digital signal over analog signal
• Cheaper in price
• Less noise interference
• Disadvantages of digital signal over analog signal
• A higher bandwidth is required for data communication in comparison to analog
transmission of an equivalent information.
• Processing is more complex
Comparison of analog and digital signals
Serial Transmission
• When data is sent or received using serial data transmission, the data bits are
organized in a specific order, since they can only be sent one after another. The
order of the data bits is important as it dictates how the transmission is organized
when it is received. It is viewed as a reliable data transmission method because a
data bit is only sent if the previous data bit has already been received.
• Communication between two computers is example of serial transmission.
Asynchronous Serial Transmission
• Data bits can be sent at any point in time. Stop bits and start bits are used
between data bytes to synchronize the transmitter and receiver and to ensure
that the data is transmitted correctly. The time between sending and receiving
data bits is not constant, so gaps are used to provide time between transmissions.

• The advantage of using the asynchronous method is that no synchronization is

required between the transmitter and receiver devices. It is also a more cost
effective method. A disadvantage is that data transmission can be slower, but this
is not always the case.

• Emails use asynchronous transmission.

Synchronous Serial Transmission
• Data bits are transmitted as a continuous stream in time with a master clock. The
data transmitter and receiver both operate using a synchronized clock frequency;
therefore, start bits, stop bits, and gaps are not used. This means that data moves
faster and timing errors are less frequent because the transmitter and receiver
time is synced. However, data accuracy is highly dependent on timing being
synced correctly between devices. In comparison with asynchronous serial
transmission, this method is usually more expensive.

• Video conferencing uses synchronous transmission.

Parallel Transmission
• When data is sent using parallel data transmission, multiple data bits are
transmitted over multiple channels at the same time. This means that data can be
sent much faster than using serial transmission methods.
• The main advantages of parallel transmission over serial transmission are:
• it is easier to program;
• and data is sent faster.
• Video Streaming and communication between computer and printer are
examples of parallel transmission.
Data Transmission Modes
• Simplex
• One direction
• e.g. Television
• Half duplex
• Either direction, but only one way at a time
• e.g. police radio
• Full duplex
• Both directions at the same time
• e.g. telephone
Transmission Impairments
• Signal received may differ from signal transmitted
• Analog - degradation of signal quality
• Digital - bit errors
• Caused by
• Attenuation and attenuation distortion
• Delay distortion
• Noise
 Attenuation
• Signal strength falls off with distance
• Depends on medium
• Received signal strength:
• must be enough to be detected
• must be sufficiently higher than noise to be received without error
• Attenuation is an increasing function of frequency
Delay Distortion
• Only in guided media
• Propagation velocity varies with frequency
Noise (1)
• Additional signals inserted between transmitter and receiver
• Thermal
• Due to thermal agitation of electrons
• Uniformly distributed
• White noise
• Intermodulation
• Signals that are the sum and difference of original frequencies sharing a
medium
Noise (2)
• Crosstalk
• A signal from one line is picked up by another
• Impulse
• Irregular pulses or spikes
• e.g. External electromagnetic interference
• Short duration
• High amplitude