The Foundations: Logic

and Proofs
Chapter 1, Part III: Proofs

With Question/Answer
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Summary
Valid Arguments and Rules of Inference
Proof Methods
Proof Strategies
Rules of Inference
Section 1.6
Section Summary
Valid Arguments
Inference Rules for Propositional Logic
Using Rules of Inference to Build Arguments
Rules of Inference for Quantified Statements
Building Arguments for Quantified
Statements
Revisiting the Socrates Example
We have the two premises:
“All men are mortal.”
“Socrates is a man.”
And the conclusion:
“Socrates is mortal.”
How do we get the conclusion from the
premises?
The Argument
We can express the premises (above the line)
and the conclusion (below the line) in
predicate logic as an argument:

We will see shortly that this is a valid

argument.
Valid Arguments
 We will show how to construct valid
arguments in two stages; first for
propositional logic and then for predicate
logic. The rules of inference are the
essential building block in the construction
of valid arguments.
1. Propositional Logic
Inference Rules
2. Predicate Logic
Inference rules for propositional logic plus additional
inference rules to handle variables and
quantifiers.
Arguments in Propositional Logic
 A argument in propositional logic is a sequence of
propositions. All but the final proposition are called
premises. The last statement is the conclusion.
 The argument is valid if the premises imply the conclusion.
An argument form is an argument that is valid no matter
what propositions are substituted into its propositional

 If the premises are p1 ,p2, …,pn and the conclusion is q then

variables.

(p1 ∧ p2 ∧ … ∧ pn ) → q is a tautology.
 Inference rules are all argument simple argument forms that
will be used to construct more complex argument forms.
Rules of Inference for Propositional Logic:
Modus Ponens

(p ∧ (p →q)) → q
Corresponding Tautology:

Example:
Let p be “It is snowing.”
Let q be “I will study discrete math.”

“If it is snowing, then I will study discrete

math.”
“It is snowing.”

“Therefore , I will study discrete math.”

Modus Tollens
Corresponding

(¬q∧(p →q))→¬p
Tautology:

Example:
Let p be “it is snowing.”
Let q be “I will study discrete math.”

“If it is snowing, then I will study discrete

math.”
“I will not study discrete math.”

“Therefore , it is not snowing.”

Hypothetical Syllogism
((p →q) ∧ (q→r))→(p→ r)
Corresponding Tautology:

Example:
Let p be “it snows.”
Let q be “I will study discrete math.”
Let r be “I will get an A.”

“If it snows, then I will study discrete math.”

“If I study discrete math, I will get an A.”

“Therefore , If it snows, I will get an A.”

Disjunctive Syllogism
Corresponding

(¬p∧(p ∨q))→q
Tautology:

Example:
Let p be “I will study discrete math.”
Let q be “I will study English literature.”

“I will study discrete math or I will study English

literature.”
“I will not study discrete math.”

“Therefore , I will study English literature.”

Addition

p →(p ∨q)
Corresponding Tautology:

Example:
Let p be “I will study discrete math.”
Let q be “I will visit Las Vegas.”

“I will study discrete math.”

“Therefore, I will study discrete math or I will

visit
Las Vegas.”
Simplification

(p∧q) →p
Corresponding Tautology:

Example:
Let p be “I will study discrete math.”
Let q be “I will study English literature.”

“I will study discrete math and English

literature”

“Therefore, I will study discrete math.”

Conjunction
Corresponding

((p) ∧ (q)) →(p ∧ q)

Tautology:

Example:
Let p be “I will study discrete math.”
Let q be “I will study English literature.”

“I will study discrete math.”

“I will study English literature.”

“Therefore, I will study discrete math and I will

study English literature.”
Resolution Resolution plays an important
role in AI and is used in
Prolog.

((¬p ∨ r ) ∧ (p ∨ q)) →(q ∨ r)

Corresponding Tautology:

Example:
Let p be “I will study discrete math.”
Let r be “I will study English literature.”
Let q be “I will study databases.”

“I will not study discrete math or I will study English

literature.”
“I will study discrete math or I will study databases.”

“Therefore, I will study databases or I will study

English literature.”
Using the Rules of Inference to Build Valid
Arguments
 A valid argument is a sequence of statements. Each statement
is either a premise or follows from previous statements by
rules of inference. The last statement is called conclusion.
 A valid argument takes the following form:
S1
S2
.
.
.
Sn

C
Valid Arguments
Example 1: From the single proposition

Show that q is a conclusion.

Solution:
Valid Arguments
Example 2:
 With these hypotheses:
“It is not sunny this afternoon and it is colder than yesterday.”
“We will go swimming only if it is sunny.”
“If we do not go swimming, then we will take a canoe trip.”
“If we take a canoe trip, then we will be home by sunset.”
 Using the inference rules, construct a valid argument for the conclusion:
“We will be home by sunset.”
Solution:
1. Choose propositional variables:
p : “It is sunny this afternoon.” r : “We will go swimming.” t : “We will be
home by sunset.”
q : “It is colder than yesterday.” s : “We will take a canoe trip.”
2. Translation into propositional logic:

Continued on next slide 

Valid Arguments
3. Construct the Valid Argument
Handling Quantified Statements
Valid arguments for quantified statements
are a sequence of statements. Each statement
is either a premise or follows from previous
statements by rules of inference which
include:
Rules of Inference for Propositional Logic
Rules of Inference for Quantified Statements
The rules of inference for quantified
statements are introduced in the next several
slides.
Universal Instantiation (UI)

Example:

Our domain consists of all dogs and Fido is a dog.

“All dogs are cuddly.”

“Therefore, Fido is cuddly.”

Universal Generalization (UG)

Used often implicitly in Mathematical

Proofs.
Existential Instantiation (EI)

Example:

“There is someone who got an A in the course.”

“Let’s call her a and say that a got an A”
Existential Generalization (EG)

Example:

“Michelle got an A in the class.”

“Therefore, someone got an A in the class.”
Using Rules of Inference
Example 1: Using the rules of inference, construct a valid
argument to show that
“John Smith has two legs”
is a consequence of the premises:
“Every man has two legs.” “John Smith is a man.”
Solution: Let M(x) denote “x is a man” and L(x) “ x has two
legs” and let John Smith be a member of the domain.
Valid Argument:
Using Rules of Inference
Example 2: Use the rules of inference to construct a valid
argument showing that the conclusion
“Someone who passed the first exam has not read the book.”
follows from the premises
“A student in this class has not read the book.”
“Everyone in this class passed the first exam.”
Solution: Let C(x) denote “x is in this class,” B(x) denote “ x has
read the book,” and P(x) denote “x passed the first exam.”
First we translate the
premises and conclusion
into symbolic form.

Continued on next slide 

Using Rules of Inference
Valid Argument:
Returning to the Socrates Example
Solution for Socrates Example
Valid Argument
Universal Modus Ponens
Universal Modus Ponens combines
universal instantiation and modus
ponens into one rule.

This rule could be used in the Socrates

example.
Introduction to Proofs
Section 1.7
Section Summary
Mathematical Proofs
Forms of Theorems
Direct Proofs
Indirect Proofs
Proof of the Contrapositive
Proof by Contradiction
Proofs of Mathematical Statements
 A proof is a valid argument that establishes the truth of a
statement.
 In math, CS, and other disciplines, informal proofs which are
generally shorter, are generally used.
 More than one rule of inference are often used in a step.
 Steps may be skipped.
 The rules of inference used are not explicitly stated.
 Easier for to understand and to explain to people.
 But it is also easier to introduce errors.
 Proofs have many practical applications:
 verification that computer programs are correct
 establishing that operating systems are secure
 enabling programs to make inferences in artificial intelligence
 showing that system specifications are consistent
Definitions
 A theorem is a statement that can be shown to be true using:
 definitions
 other theorems
 axioms (statements which are given as true)
 rules of inference
 A lemma is a ‘helping theorem’ or a result which is needed to
prove a theorem.
 A corollary is a result which follows directly from a theorem.
 Less important theorems are sometimes called propositions.
 A conjecture is a statement that is being proposed to be true.
Once a proof of a conjecture is found, it becomes a theorem. It
may turn out to be false.
Forms of Theorems
Many theorems assert that a property holds for all
elements in a domain, such as the integers, the real
numbers, or some of the discrete structures that we
will study in this class.
Often the universal quantifier (needed for a precise
statement of a theorem) is omitted by standard
mathematical convention.
For example, the statement:
“If x > y, where x and y are positive real numbers, then x2 >
y2 ”
really means
“For all positive real numbers x and y, if x > y, then x2 > y2 .”
Proving Theorems
Many theorems have the form:

To prove them, we show that where c is an

arbitrary element of the domain,
By universal generalization the truth of the
original formula follows.
So, we must prove something of the form:
Proving Conditional Statements: p → q

p → q is true as well.
 Trivial Proof: If we know q is true, then

“If it is raining then 1=1.”

p → q is true as well.
 Vacuous Proof: If we know p is false then

“If I am both rich and poor then 2 + 2 = 5.”

[ Even though these examples seem silly, both trivial and

vacuous proofs are often used in mathematical induction, as
we will see in Chapter 5) ]
Even and Odd Integers
exists an integer k such that n = 2k, and n is
Definition: The integer n is even if there

2k + 1. Note that every integer is either even

odd if there exists an integer k, such that n =

or odd and no integer is both even and odd.

We will need this basic fact about the

integers in some of the example proofs to
follow. We will learn more about the integers
in Chapter 4.
Proving Conditional Statements: p → q
Direct Proof: Assume that p is true. Use rules of
inference, axioms, and logical equivalences to show
that q must also be true.
Example: Give a direct proof of the theorem “If n is an

Solution: Assume that n is odd. Then n = 2k + 1 for an

odd integer, then n2 is odd.”

n2 = (2k + 1)2 = 4k2 + 4k +1 = 2(2k2 + 2k) + 1= 2r +

integer k. Squaring both sides of the equation, we get:

1,
where r = 2k2 + 2k , an integer.
We have proved that if n is an odd integer, then n2 is
an odd integer.
( marks the end of the proof. Sometimes
QED is used instead. )
Proving Conditional Statements: p → q
Definition: The real number r is rational if
there exist integers p and q where q≠0 such
that r = p/q
Example: Prove that the sum of two rational
numbers is rational.
Solution: Assume r and s are two rational
numbers. Then there must be integers p, q and
where v = pu + qt
also t, u such that
w = qu ≠ 0

Thus the sum is rational.

Proving Conditional Statements: p → q
 Proof by Contraposition: Assume ¬q and show ¬p is true also.

direct proof of ¬q → ¬p then we have a proof of p → q.

This is sometimes called an indirect proof method. If we give a

Example: Prove that if n is an integer and 3n + 2 is odd,

Why does this work?

Solution: Assume n is even. So, n = 2k for some integer k.

then n is odd.

3n + 2 = 3(2k) + 2 =6k +2 = 2(3k + 1) = 2j for j = 3k +1

Thus

Therefore 3n + 2 is even. Since we have shown ¬q → ¬p , p

→ q must hold as well. If n is an integer and 3n + 2 is odd
(not even) , then n is odd (not even).
Proving Conditional Statements: p → q
Example: Prove that for an integer n, if n2 is
odd, then n is odd.
Solution: Use proof by contraposition. Assume n

integer k such that n = 2k. Hence,

is even (i.e., not odd). Therefore, there exists an

n2 = 4k2 = 2 (2k2)
and n2 is even(i.e., not odd).
We have shown that if n is an even integer, then
n2 is even. Therefore by contraposition, for an
integer n, if n2 is odd, then n is odd.
Proving Conditional Statements: p → q
To prove p, assume ¬p and derive a contradiction such
Proof by Contradiction: (AKA reductio ad absurdum).

as p ∧ ¬p. (an indirect form of proof). Since we have

shown that ¬p →F is true , it follows that the
contrapositive T→p also holds.
Example: Prove that if you pick 22 days from the
calendar, at least 4 must fall on the same day of the week.
Solution: Assume that no more than 3 of the 22 days fall
on the same day of the week. Because there are 7 days of
the week, we could only have picked 21 days. This
contradicts the assumption that we have picked 22 days.
Proof by Contradiction
 A preview of Chapter 4.
Example: Use a proof by contradiction to give a proof that √2 is
irrational.
Solution: Suppose √2 is rational. Then there exists integers a and b
with √2 = a/b, where b≠ 0 and a and b have no common factors (see
Chapter 4). Then

Therefore a2 must be even. If a2 is even then a must be even (an

exercise). Since a is even, a = 2c for some integer c. Thus,

Therefore b2 is even. Again then b must be even as well.

But then 2 must divide both a and b. This contradicts our assumption
that a and b have no common factors. We have proved by contradiction
that our initial assumption must be false and therefore √2 is irrational .
Proof by Contradiction
A preview of Chapter 4.
Example: Prove that there is no largest prime
number.
Solution: Assume that there is a largest prime

2,3,.., pn. Form

number. Call it pn. Hence, we can list all the primes

None of the prime numbers on the list divides r.

Therefore, by a theorem in Chapter 4, either r is
prime or there is a smaller prime that divides r. This
contradicts the assumption that there is a largest
prime. Therefore, there is no largest prime.
Theorems that are Biconditional
Statements
statement, that is, a statement of the form p ↔ q,
To prove a theorem that is a biconditional

we show that p → q and q →p are both true.

Example: Prove the theorem: “If n is an integer,
then n is odd if and only if n2 is odd.”
Solution: We have already shown (previous
slides) that both p →q and q →p. Therefore we
can conclude p ↔ q.

Sometimes iff is used as an abbreviation for “if an only if,” as in

“If n is an integer, then n is odd iif n2 is odd.”
What is wrong with this?
“Proof” that 1 = 2

Solution: Step 5. a - b = 0 by the

premise and division by 0 is undefined.
Looking Ahead
 If direct methods of proof do not work:
We may need a clever use of a proof by
contraposition.
 Or a proof by contradiction.
 In the next section, we will see strategies that
can be used when straightforward approaches
do not work.
In Chapter 5, we will see mathematical
induction and related techniques.
In Chapter 6, we will see combinatorial proofs
Proof Methods and
Strategy
Section 1.8
Section Summary
Proof by Cases
Existence Proofs
Constructive
Nonconstructive
Disproof by Counterexample
Nonexistence Proofs
Uniqueness Proofs
Proof Strategies
Proving Universally Quantified Assertions
Open Problems
Proof by Cases
To prove a conditional statement of the form:

Use the tautology

Each of the implications is a case.

Proof by Cases
Example: Let a @ b = max{a, b} = a if a ≥ b, otherwise
a @ b = max{a, b} = b.
Show that for all real numbers a, b, c
(a @b) @ c = a @ (b @ c)
(This means the operation @ is associative.)
Proof: Let a, b, and c be arbitrary real numbers.

1. a ≥ b ≥ c
Then one of the following 6 cases must hold.

2. a ≥ c ≥ b
3. b ≥ a ≥c
4. b ≥ c ≥a
5. c ≥ a ≥ b
6. c ≥ b ≥ a Continued on next slide 
Proof by Cases
Case 1: a ≥ b ≥ c
(a @ b) = a, a @ c = a, b @ c = b
Hence (a @ b) @ c = a = a @ (b @ c)
Therefore the equality holds for the first case.

A complete proof requires that the equality

be shown to hold for all 6 cases. But the
proofs of the remaining cases are similar.
Try them.
Without Loss of Generality
Example: Show that if x and y are integers and both x∙y and x+y are
even, then both x and y are even.
Proof: Use a proof by contraposition. Suppose x and y are not both

x is odd. Then x = 2m + 1 for some integer m.

even. Then, one or both are odd. Without loss of generality, assume that

Case 1: y is even. Then y = 2n for some integer n, so

x + y = (2m + 1) + 2n = 2(m + n) + 1 is odd.
Case 2: y is odd. Then y = 2n + 1 for some integer n, so
x ∙ y = (2m + 1) (2n + 1) = 2(2m ∙ n +m + n) + 1 is odd.

We only cover the case where x is odd because the case where y is odd is
similar. The use phrase without loss of generality (WLOG) indicates
this.
Existence Proofs (1887-1920)
Srinivasa Ramanujan

Proof of theorems of the form .

Constructive existence proof:
 Find an explicit value of c, for which P(c) is true.
 Then is true by Existential Generalization
(EG).
Example: Show that there is a positive integer that
can be written as the sum of cubes of positive

1729 is such a number since

integers in two different ways:

1729 = 103 + 93 = 123 + 13

Proof:

(1877-1947)
Godfrey Harold Hardy
Nonconstructive Existence Proofs
In a nonconstructive existence proof, we assume
no c exists which makes P(c) true and derive a
contradiction.
Example: Show that there exist irrational

Proof: We know that √2 is irrational. Consider the

numbers x and y such that xy is rational.

number √2 √2 . If it is rational, we have two

irrational numbers x and y with xy rational, namely
x = √2 and y = √2. But if √2 √2 is irrational,
then we can let x = √2 √2 and y =
√2 so that xy = (√2 √2 )√2 = √2 (√2 √2) = √2 2
= 2.
Counterexamples
Recall .
To establish that is true (or
is false) find a c such that P(c) is true or
P(c) is false.
In this case c is called a counterexample to
the assertion .
Example: “Every positive integer is the sum
of the squares of 3 integers.” The integer 7 is
a counterexample. So the claim is false.
Uniqueness Proofs
 Some theorems asset the existence of a unique element with
a particular property, !x P(x). The two parts of a uniqueness
proof are

 Uniqueness: We show that if y≠x, then y does not have the

 Existence: We show that an element x with the property exists.

property.
Example: Show that if a and b are real numbers and a ≠0,
then there is a unique real number r such that ar + b = 0.
Solution:
 Existence: The real number r = −b/a is a solution of ar + b = 0
because a(−b/a) + b = −b + b =0.
 Uniqueness: Suppose that s is a real number such that as + b
= 0. Then ar + b = as + b, where r = −b/a. Subtracting b from
both sides and dividing by a shows that r = s.
Proof Strategies for proving p → q
Choose a method.
1. First try a direct method of proof.
2. If this does not work, try an indirect method (e.g., try
to prove the contrapositive).
 For whichever method you are trying, choose a
strategy.
1. First try forward reasoning. Start with the axioms
and known theorems and construct a sequence of

prove q, or start with ¬q and prove ¬p.

steps that end in the conclusion. Start with p and

2. If this doesn’t work, try backward reasoning. When

prove with the property p → q.

trying to prove q, find a statement p that we can
Backward Reasoning
Example: Suppose that two people play a game taking turns removing, 1, 2, or 3
stones at a time from a pile that begins with 15 stones. The person who removes
the last stone wins the game. Show that the first player can win the game no
matter what the second player does.

Proof: Let n be the last step of the game.

Step n: Player1 can win if the pile contains 1,2, or 3 stones.
Step n-1: Player2 will have to leave such a pile if the pile that he/she is faced with has
4 stones.
Step n-2: Player1 can leave 4 stones when there are 5,6, or 7 stones left at the
beginning of his/her turn.
Step n-3: Player2 must leave such a pile, if there are 8 stones .
Step n-4: Player1 has to have a pile with 9,10, or 11 stones to ensure that there are 8

Step n-5: Player2 needs to be faced with 12 stones to be forced to leave 9,10, or 11.
left.

Step n-6: Player1 can leave 12 stones by removing 3 stones.

Now reasoning forward, the first player can ensure a win by removing 3 stones
and leaving 12.
Universally Quantified Assertions
To prove theorems of the form ,assume x is
an arbitrary member of the domain and show that
P(x) must be true. Using UG it follows that .
Example: An integer x is even if and only if x2 is
even.
Solution: The quantified assertion is
x [x is even  x2 is even]
We assume x is arbitrary.
Recall that is equivalent to
So, we have two cases to consider. These are
considered in turn.
Continued on next slide 
Universally Quantified Assertions
Case 1. We show that if x is even then x2 is
even using a direct proof (the only if part or

If x is even then x = 2k for some integer k.

necessity).

Hence x2 = 4k2 = 2(2k2 ) which is even since

it is an integer divisible by 2.
This completes the proof of case 1.

Case 2 on next slide 

Universally Quantified Assertions
Case 2. We show that if x2 is even then x must be even
(the if part or sufficiency). We use a proof by
contraposition.
Assume x is not even and then show that x2 is not even.
If x is not even then it must be odd. So, x = 2k + 1 for
some k. Then x2 = (2k + 1)2 = 4k2 + 4k + 1 = 2(2k2 + 2k)
+1

of case 2.
which is odd and hence not even. This completes the proof

Since x was arbitrary, the result follows by UG.

Therefore we have shown that x is even if and only if x2 is
even.
Proof and Disproof: Tilings
Example 1: Can we tile the standard
checkerboard using dominos?
Solution: Yes! One example provides a
constructive existence proof.

Two
Dominoes

The Standard One Possible

Checkerboard Solution
Tilings
Example 2: Can we tile a checkerboard
obtained by removing one of the four corner
squares of a standard checkerboard?

Our checkerboard has 64 − 1 = 63 squares.

Solution:

Since each domino has two squares, a board

with a tiling must have an even number of
squares.
The number 63 is not even.
We have a contradiction.
Tilings
Example 3: Can we tile a board obtained by
removing both the upper left and the lower
right squares of a standard checkerboard?

Nonstandard Dominoes
Checkerboard
Continued on next slide 
Tilings
Solution:
There are 62 squares in this board.
To tile it we need 31 dominos.
Key fact: Each domino covers one black and one
white square.
Therefore the tiling covers 31 black squares and
31 white squares.
Our board has either 30 black squares and 32
white squares or 32 black squares and 30 white
squares.
Contradiction!
The Role of Open Problems
Unsolved problems have motivated much
work in mathematics. Fermat’s Last Theorem
was conjectured more than 300 years ago. It

Fermat’s Last Theorem: The equation xn +

has only recently been finally solved.

yn = zn

xyz≠0 whenever n is an integer with n > 2.

has no solutions in integers x, y, and z, with

A proof was found by Andrew Wiles in the

1990s.
An Open Problem
The 3x + 1 Conjecture: Let T be the transformation

x to 3x + 1. For all positive integers x, when we

that sends an even integer x to x/2 and an odd integer

eventually reach the integer 1.

repeatedly apply the transformation T, we will

For example, starting with x = 13:

T(13) = 3∙13 + 1 = 40, T(40) = 40/2 = 20, T(20) = 20/2 = 10,
T(10) = 10/2 = 5, T(5) = 3∙5 + 1 = 16,T(16) = 16/2 = 8,
T(8) = 8/2 = 4, T(4) = 4/2 = 2, T(2) = 2/2 = 1
The conjecture has been verified using computers up
to 5.6 ∙ 1013 .
Additional Proof Methods
Later we will see many other proof methods:
Mathematical induction, which is a useful
method for proving statements of the form n
P(n), where the domain consists of all positive
integers.
Structural induction, which can be used to
prove such results about recursively defined
sets.
Cantor diagonalization is used to prove results
about the size of infinite sets.
Combinatorial proofs use counting arguments.