Chapter Five

Applied Electronics II

Oscillators
 Introduction
 Oscillator is an electronic circuit that generates a periodic
waveform on its output without an external signal source.
 It is used to convert DC to AC.

 The output voltage can be sinusoidal or non-sinusoidal

depending on the type of oscillators

 Different types of oscillators produce various types of

output including sine waves square waves triangular
waves, and saw-tooth waves.

2
 Introduction
• A basic oscillator circuit is shown in figure
Sine wave

Square
wave

Sawtooth
wave

Fig. Basic oscillator concept showing three common

types of output

3
 Feedback Vs Relaxation Oscillator
 There are two major classifications of oscillators:
Feedback oscillators and relaxation oscillators
 Feedback oscillators: oscillator which returns
a fraction of the output signal to the input
with no net phase shift resulting
in a reinforcement of the output signal .
 A feedback oscillator consists of an
amplifier for gain (either a discrete transistor
or an open loop amp ) and positive feedback
circuit that produces phase shift and
provides attenuation.
4
 Feedback Vs Relaxation Oscillator
Feedback oscillator operation is based on the
principle of positive feedback.
Feedback oscillators are widely used to
generate sinusoidal waveforms.
In positive feedback, a portion of the output
voltage of an amplifier is fed back to the input
with no net phase shift, resulting in a
strengthening of the output signal.

5
Feedback Vs Relaxation Oscillator
 The in-phase feedback
voltage is amplified to
produce the output voltage,
which in turn produces the
feedback voltage.
 A loop is created in which the
signal maintains itself and a
continuous sinusoidal output
is produced.
 This phenomenon is called
oscillation

6
 Feedback Vs Relaxation Oscillator
 The second type of oscillator is the relaxation
oscillator.
Instead of feedback, a relaxation oscillator uses an
RC timing circuit to generate a waveform that is
generally a square wave or another non-sinusoidal
waveform.
Typically, a relaxation oscillator uses a Schmitt
trigger or other device that changes states to an
alternative charge and discharges a capacitor
through a resistor.
7
 Application of Oscillators
Signals generated by oscillators serve a variety of
purposes. Communications systems, digital
systems (including computers), and test equipment
make use of oscillators.
Oscillators are used to generate signals, e.g.
 Used as a local oscillator to transform the RF signals to
IF signals in a receiver;
 Used to generate RF carrier in a transmitter
 Used to generate clocks in digital systems;
 Used as sweep circuits in TV sets and CRO.
8
 Basic principles for oscillation
• An oscillator is an amplifier with positive
feedback.
Ve Vo
Vs A
+
Vf
b
Ve Vs  V f (1)
V f  βVo (2)

Vo  AV e  AVs  V f   AVs  βVo  (3)

 Basic principles for oscillation
Vo  AV e
 AVs  V f   AVs  βVo 
Vo  AV s  A Vo
1  A Vo  AV s
• The closed loop gain is:
Vo A
Af  
Vs 1  Aβ 
 Basic principles for oscillation
 In general A and  are functions of frequency
and thus may be written as;

Vo As 
A f s   s  
Vs 1  As β s 
As β s  is known as loop gain
 Basic principles for oscillation
 Thus, the condition for sinusoidal oscillation of
frequency f0 is;
A jω0 β  jω0  1

 This is known as Barkhausen criterion.

 The frequency of oscillation is solely
determined by the phase characteristic of the
feedback loop – the loop oscillates at the
frequency for which the phase is zero.
 Design Criteria for Oscillators
1. The magnitude of the loop gain must be unity
or slightly larger
Aβ 1 – Barkhaussen criterion

2. Total phase shift, of the loop gain must be

Nx360° where N=0, 1, 2, …
 Practical Design Considerations
• Usually, oscillators are designed so that the loop gain
magnitude is slightly higher than unity at the desired frequency
of oscillation
• This is done because if we designed for unity loop gain
magnitude a slight reduction in gain would result in oscillations
that die to zero
• The drawback is that the oscillation will be slightly distorted (the
higher gain results in oscillation that grows up to the point that
will be clipped)
 How does the oscillation get
started?

• Noise signals and the transients associated with the

circuit turning on provide the initial source signal
that initiate the oscillation
 Types of oscillators
1. RC oscillators
– Wien Bridge
– Phase-Shift
2. LC oscillators
– Hartley
– Colpitts
– Crystal
3. Unijunction / relaxation oscillators

16
 RC Oscillators
• RC feedback oscillators are generally limited
to frequencies of 1 MHz or less.
• The types of RC oscillators that we will discuss
are the Wien-bridge and the phase-shift

17
 Wien-bridge Oscillator
• It is a low frequency oscillator which ranges
from a few kHz to 1 MHz.

18
Another way

Figure 5.70 Typical linear oscillator.

19
 Wien-bridge Oscillator
• The loop gain for the oscillator is;
 R2   Z p 
T s   As β s   1   
R  Z Z 
 1  p s 
R
Zp 
• where; 1  sRC

1  sRC
Zs 
sC
• and
20
 Wien-bridge Oscillator
• Hence;  R2   1 
T s   1    
  
R1   3  sRC  1 /sRC 
• Substituting for s;
 R2   1 
T  j   1    
 R1   3  jRC  1/jRC 
For oscillation frequency w0
 R2   1 
T  j0   1    
 R1   3  j0 RC  1/j0 RC 
21
 Wien-bridge Oscillator
• Since at the frequency of oscillation, T(j)
must be real (for zero phase condition), the
imaginary component must be zero;
1
j0 RC  0
1 j0 RC
j0 RC  0 j0 RC 
1

j0 RC ( j0 RC ) 2  1

j0 RC

j 2 0 RC 
2
 1

• which gives us  1.0 RC 


2
 1
0 RC 
1
2
 1

0  0 RC 1


RC 0 

1
RC
22
 Wien-bridge Oscillator
• From the previous eq. (for oscillation
frequency f0),
 R2   1 
T  j0   1    
 R1   3  j0 RC  1/j0 RC 
• The magnitude condition is;
 R2   1   R2   1  R2
1  1      1      3  1 2
 R1   3  0   R1   3  R1

To ensure oscillation, the ratio R2/R1 must be

slightly greater than 2.
23
 Wien-bridge Oscillator
R2
• With the ratio; 2
R1

R2
• then; K 1  R 3
1

K = 3 ensures the loop gain of unity – oscillation

– K > 3 : growing oscillations
– K < 3 : decreasing oscillations

24
Wien-Bridge oscillator output

Figure 9.75 Example of output voltage of the oscillator.

25
 Wien Bridge Oscillator
Let
1 1 Frequency Selection Network
X C1  and X C 2 
C1 C 2 Z1
Z1 R1  jX C1 R1 C1 Z2
1
 1 1   jR2 X C 2
Z 2     Vi C2 R2 Vo
R
 2  jX C2  R2  jX C 2

Therefore, the feedback factor,

Vo Z2 ( jR2 X C 2 / R2  jX C 2 )
  
Vi Z1  Z 2 ( R1  jX C1 )  ( jR2 X C 2 / R2  jX C 2 )

 jR2 X C 2

( R1  jX C1 )( R2  jX C 2 )  jR2 X C 2

26
 can be rewritten as:
R2 X C 2

R1 X C 2  R2 X C1  R2 X C 2  j ( R1 R2  X C1 X C 2 )
For Barkhausen Criterion, imaginary part = 0, i.e.,
0.34
R1 R2  X C1 X C 2 0 0.32

Feedback factor 
0.3
1 1 =1/3
or R1 R2  0.28

C1 C2 0.26

0.24
  1 / R1 R2C1C2 0.22
0.2
Supposing, f(R=Xc)
1
R1=R2=R and XC1= XC2=XC,
0.5 Phase=0
Phase

RX C 0

3RX C  j ( R 2  X C2 ) -0.5

-1
Frequency
27
 Example
Design a Wien-bridge circuit to oscillate at a f₀=20KHz.
1 Rf

By setting , we get
RC
1

Imaginary part = 0 and  R1
3 

+
C R
Vo
R Z1
Rf C Z2
Av  1  Av 3 1 
Rf R1
Therefore, 2 Wien Bridge Oscillator
R1

28
 Phase-Shift Oscillator
• The phase shift oscillator utilizes three RC
circuits to provide 180º phase shift that when
coupled with the 180º of the inverting op-amp
itself provides the necessary feedback to
sustain oscillations.

29
 Phase-Shift Oscillator
C R2
R
C v2
C v1 v2 v3
vi v1 vo

R R
vo R2
A( s )  
v3 R
3
 sRC   sRC 
v1   vi v3   vi
 1  sRC   1  sRC 
2 3
 sRC  v3  sRC 
v2   vi  ( s )  
 1  sRC  vi  1  sRC 
30
 Phase-Shift Oscillator
• Loop gain, T(s):
3
 R2   sRC 
T ( s )  A( s )  ( s )    
 R   1  sRC 
• Set s=jw
3
 R2   jRC 
T ( j )    
 R   1  jRC 
R
 2 ( j  RC )( RC ) 2
T ( j )   
 
 R  1  3 R C  jRC 3   R C
2 2 2 2 2 2
 
31
 Phase-Shift Oscillator
• To satisfy condition T(jwo)=1, real component
must be zero since the numerator is purely
imaginary. 1  3 2 R 2C 2 0
1
• the oscillation frequency: 0 
3RC
Apply wo in equation:
 R2  ( j / 3 )(1 / 3)  R2   1 
T ( jo )        
 R  0  ( j / 3 )3  (1 / 3)  R  8 
• To satisfy condition T(jwo)=1
R2 The gain greater than 8, the circuit will
8 spontaneously begin oscillating & sustain
R oscillations 32
 Phase-Shift Oscillator

1 R2
fo  29 The gain must be at least
29 to maintain the
2 6 RC R oscillations
33
 Exercise
1. Determine the oscillation frequency and required
amplifier gain for a phase-shift oscillator, where C=0.1µF
and R=1kΩ
2. Design a phase-shift oscillator for a frequency of 800Hz,
where the capacitors are 10nF.
3. Design the phase-shift oscillator to oscillate at f₀=
22.5KHz. The minimum resistance to be used is 10KΩ.

34
 LC Oscillators
 Although the RC feedback oscillators, particularly the Wien
bridge, are generally suitable for frequencies up to about 1
MHz, LC feedback elements are normally used in oscillators
that require higher frequencies of oscillation.
 Also, because of the frequency limitation (lower unity- gain
frequency) of most op-amps, transistors (BJT or FET) are often
used as the gain element in LC oscillators.
 This section introduces several types of resonant LC feedback
oscillators like the Colpitts, Hartley, and crystal-controlled
oscillators
 Use transistors and LC tuned circuits or crystals in their
feedback network.

35
 Colpitts Oscillator
 One basic type of resonant
circuit feedback oscillator is
the Colpitts shown in the
figure.
 This type of oscillator uses an
LC circuit in the feedback loop
to provide the necessary phase
shift and to act as a resonant
filter that passes only the
desired frequency of
oscillation.

36
 Colpitts Oscillator
• The approximate frequency of oscillation is the resonant
frequency of the LC circuit and is established by the values
of C1 , C2 and L according to the formula:
1
fr 
• Where, C1C 2 2 LCT
CT 
C1  C 2
• The output voltage is developed across C2 and the feedback
voltage is developed across C1.

37
 Colpitts Oscillator
 The attenuation, β, of the resonant
feedback circuit in the Colpitts
oscillator is basically determined by the
values of C1 and C2.
 The voltage developed across C2 is the
oscillator’s output voltage Vout and the
voltage developed across C1 is the
feedback voltage Vf.

β= 𝐶2/𝐶1
 The expression for the attenuation is

• The condition for oscillation is 𝐴𝑣β= 1

or 𝐴𝑣 = 𝐶1/𝐶2
38
 Colpitts Oscillator
 The input impedance of the amplifier acts as a load
on the resonant feedback circuit and reduces the Q
of the circuit.
 The resonant frequency of a parallel resonant circuit
depends on the Q as:
1 Q2
fr 
2 LCT Q 2 1
 For a Q greater than 10,𝑓𝑟 is approximately
1
fr 
2 LCT
 When Q is less than 10, 𝑓𝑟 is reduced significantly

39
 Colpitts Oscillator: example
A Colpitts oscillator circuit having two capacitors of 24nF and
240nF respectively are connected in parallel with an inductor of
10mH. Determine the frequency of oscillations of the circuit and
the feedback fraction.
Solution: The oscillation frequency for a Colpitts Oscillator is
given as: where,

Then,

Feedback fraction, β= 𝐶2/𝐶1= 24nF/240nF = 10%

40
 Hartley Oscillator
• The Hartley oscillator is
almost identical to the
Colpitts oscillator.
• The primary difference
is that the feedback
network of the Hartley
oscillator uses tapped
inductors (L1 and L2) and
a single capacitor C.

41
 Hartley Oscillator
• The analysis of Hartley oscillator is identical to
that Colpitts oscillator.
• The frequency of oscillation:

1
o 
L1  L2 C

42
 Crystal Oscillator
• Most communications and digital applications require the use
of oscillators with extremely stable output. Crystal oscillators
are invented to overcome the output fluctuation experienced
by conventional oscillators.
• Crystals used in electronic applications consist of a quartz
wafer held between two metal plates and housed in a package
as shown in Fig. 9 (a) and (b).

43
 Crystal Oscillator
• Piezoelectric Effect
– The quartz crystal is made of silicon oxide (SiO2) and
exhibits a property called the piezoelectric
– When a changing or alternating voltage is applied across
the crystal, it vibrates at the frequency of the applied
voltage. In another word, the frequency of the applied ac
voltage is equal to the natural resonant frequency of the
crystal.
– The thinner the crystal, the higher its frequency of
vibration. This phenomenon is called the piezoelectric
effect.
44
 Crystal Oscillator
• Characteristic of Quartz Crystal
– The crystal can have two resonant
frequencies; R
– One is the series resonance frequency f1 CM
which occurs when XL = XC. At this L
frequency, crystal offers a very low
C
impedance to the external circuit where
Z = R.
– The other is the parallel resonance (or
antiresonance) frequency f2 which
occurs when reactance of the series leg
equals the reactance of CM. At this
frequency, crystal offers a very high
impedance to the external circuit

45
 Crystal Oscillator
• The crystal is connected as a series element in the feedback
path from the collector to the base so that it is excited in the
series-resonance mode
• Since, in series resonance, crystal impedance is the smallest
that causes the crystal provides the largest positive feedback.

BJT
FET

46
 Crystal Oscillator
• Resistors R1, R2, and RE provide a voltage-divider stabilized dc bias
circuit. Capacitor CE provides ac bypass of the emitter resistor, RE to
avoid degeneration.
• The RFC coil provides dc collector load and also prevents any ac
signal from entering the dc supply.
• The coupling capacitor CC has negligible reactance at circuit
operating frequency but blocks any dc flow between collector and
base.
• The oscillation frequency equals the series-resonance frequency of
the crystal and is given by:
1
fo 
2 LCC
47
 Unijunction Oscillator
• The unijunction transistor can
be used in what is called a
relaxation oscillator as shown
by basic circuit as follow.
• The unijunction oscillator
provides a pulse signal
suitable for digital-circuit
applications.
UJT
• Resistor RT and capacitor CT
are the timing components
that set the circuit oscillating
rate

48
 Unijunction Oscillator
• Sawtooth wave
appears at the emitter
of the transistor.
• This wave shows the
gradual increase of
capacitor voltage

49
 Unijunction Oscillator
• The oscillating frequency is calculated as follows:

1
fo 
RT CT ln1 / 1   
• where, η = the unijunction transistor intrinsic
stand- off ratio
• Typically, a unijunction transistor has a stand-off
ratio from 0.4 to 0.6
50