Module 4

Metrology
 Metrology
• Science of measurements
• Involves establishing units of measurements
• Developing methods of measurements
• also concerned with industrial inspection and its
various techniques
• Analysing accuracy of methods of measurements
• investigating the causes of measuring errors
 ACCURACY AND PRECISION
Accuracy
• is the degree of agreement of the measured dimension with
its true magnitude
• nearness of the measured value to its true value, often
expressed as a percentage
Precision
• is the degree of repetitiveness of the measuring process
• ability of the measuring instrument to repeat the same results
during the act of measurements for the same quantity is
known as repeatability
Bullet hole analogy illustrating precise and accurate (Target 1), precise
and inaccurate (Target 2), imprecise but accurate (Target 3), and
imprecise and inaccurate (Target 4) data.
• The difference between the true value and the mean value of the
set of readings on the same component is termed as an error.
• E = Vm − Vt
• % error = (Vm − Vt) × 100 /Vt
• requirement of accuracy increases, the cost increases
exponentially
• Demanding high accuracy unless it is absolutely required is not
viable, as it increases the cost of the measuring equipment and
hence the inspection cost
 GENERAL MEASUREMENT CONCEPTS
• three basic elements of measurements
• Measurand: This refers to the quantity or property being
measured
• Reference: This is a known standard or a value with which the
measurand is compared.
consider measuring the length of a metal rod using a caliper:
• Measurand: The length of the rod (the property you want to
measure).
• Reference: The calibration standard of the caliper or the
graduations on the caliper’s scale
 Calibration of Measuring Instruments

• process of comparing the measurements made by an instrument

with a known reference standard to verify the instrument's
accuracy and, if necessary, adjust it to minimize errors.
• standard should normally be one order of magnitude more
accurate than the instrument to be calibrated
• critical in fields like manufacturing, engineering, medicine, and
scientific research, where precise measurements are essential.
• Example: Thermometers (digital and analog), thermocouples,
and temperature probes.
• Reason for Calibration: To ensure accurate temperature
readings, especially in critical environments like pharmaceutical
labs, industrial ovens, and food safety operations
 ERRORS IN MEASUREMENTS

• Two broad categories of errors in measurement have been

identified: systematic and random errors.
• Systematic error is a type of measurement error that is
consistent or changes in a predictable way, and is not caused
by chance.
• Systematic Errors can be controlled,Can be determined and
reduced by analysing them
• For example, if a blood pressure measuring device is defective
and always gives a higher or lower result than the actual
value, the measurements will be consistent but not accurate
the reasons for their occurrence:
a. Calibration error – Actual length of standards such as slip
gauges may vary from nominal, signal transmission errors in
electronic devices.
b. Ambient conditions – variation from standard values of
temperature, pressure can cause errors in size
measurement, affect electronic measuring devices.
c. Stylus pressure - Any elastic body, when subjected
to a load, undergoes elastic deformation
d. Avoidable errors – Parallax error, effect of misalignment of
work centre , zero error
Random errors
• provide a measure of random deviations when measurements
of a physical quantity are carried out repeatedly
• Specific causes for these variations cannot be determined,
Occur randomly due to unpredictable causes.
• a precise instrument will have very few random errors and
better repeatability.
• 1. Presence of transient fluctuations in friction in the measuring
instrument
• 2. Play in the linkages of the measuring instruments
• 3. Error in operator’s judgement in reading the fractional part of
engraved scale divisions
• 4. Operator’s inability to note the readings because of
fluctuations during measurement
• 5. Positional errors associated with the measured object and
standard, arising due to small variations in setting
• Random errors can be statistically evaluated, and their mean
value and standard deviation can be determined
• Standard deviation is a measure of dispersion of a set of
readings.

• Random errors can be minimized by calculating the average of

a large number of observations
 Tolerance

• In any production process, a certain amount of natural

variability will always exist which are random and
uncontrollable
• Characteristic variability arises from improperly adjusted
machines, operator error, tool wear, and/or defective raw
materials acceptable level of process performance.
• It is therefore impossible to produce a part to an exact
size or basic size and some variations, known as
tolerances, need to be allowed
• No component can be manufactured precisely to a given
dimension; it can only be made to lie between two limits,
upper (maximum) and lower (minimum).
• The difference between the upper and lower limits is
termed permissive tolerance.
• For example, a shaft has to be manufactured to a diameter of
40 +/- 0.02 mm
• Basic or nominal size is defined as the size based on which the
dimensional deviations are given.
 Interchangeable assembly
• A complete product be broken into various component parts so that
the production of each part becomes an independent process
• The various components are manufactured in one or more batches by
different persons on different machines at different locations and are
then assembled at one place
• components must be confined within the permissible tolerance limits.
• By interchangeable assembly, we mean that any one component
selected at random should assemble with any other arbitrarily chosen
mating component, without any further modification
• major advantage of interchangeability is the ease with which
replacement of defective or worn-out parts is carried out, resulting in
reduced maintenance cost
• achieving specialization in labour, there will be a considerable
reduction in manufacturing and assembly time and enhancement in
quality
 selective assembly
• in order to achieve interchangeability, it is not economical to
manufacture parts to a high degree of accuracy
• To manufacture the parts economically on
interchangeable basis, selective assembly approach is employed
wherein the parts are manufactured to wider tolerances
• the manufactured components are classified into groups
according to their sizes using Automatic gauging
• Both the mating parts are segregated according to their sizes,
and only matched groups of mating parts are assembled
• example is the manufacture and assembly of ball and bearing
units
 Classification of Tolerance

1. Unilateral tolerance 3. Compound tolerance

2. Bilateral tolerance 4. Geometric tolerance

Unilateral Tolerance
• tolerance distribution is only on one side of the basic size
• employed in the drilling process wherein dimensions of the
hole are most likely to deviate in one direction only, that is,
the hole is always oversized rather than undersized
• the basic size is used for the GO limit gauge
Bilateral Tolerance
• tolerance distribution lies on either side of the
basic size
Compound Tolerance
• tolerance is determined by established tolerances on more
than one dimension
• For example, tolerance for the dimension R is determined by
the combined effects of tolerance on 40 mm dimension, on
60o, and on 20 mm dimension.
Geometric Tolerance
• apart from considering the actual size, other geometric
dimensions such as roundness and straightness of a shaft
have to be considered while manufacturing components
• Geometric tolerance underlines the importance of the shape
of a feature as against its size.
• Geometric tolerance can be classified as follows:
• Form tolerances - group of geometric tolerances applied to
individual features, These include straightness, circularity,
flatness, and cylindricity.
• Orientation tolerances - limit the direction or orientation of a
feature in relation to other features. Perpendicularity,
parallelism, and angularity
 • Positional tolerances - geometric tolerances that controls the
extent of deviation of the location of a feature from its true
position.

information can be represented in the feature control frame that comprises three boxes.
The first box on the left indicates the feature to be controlled, which is
represented symbolically. In this example, it is concentricity. The box at the centre
indicates
the distance between the two cylinders that can be tolerated, that is, these two centres
cannot
be apart by more than 0.01 mm. The third box indicates that the datum is with X.
 MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM METAL CONDITIONS
• The maximum metal limit (MML) of the shaft will have a
dimension of upper limit because at this higher limit, the shaft
will have the maximum possible amount of metal
• The hole will have a maximum possible amount of metal at a
lower limit
 FITS
• The relationship between the two mating parts that are to be assembled
• Clearance fit - The largest permissible diameter of the shaft is smaller
than the diameter of the smallest hole.Provided for easy assembly,
relative motions needed
• Interference fit - The minimum permissible diameter of the shaft exceeds
the maximum
allowable diameter of the hole. a form of a tight fit. the parts will not come
apart or move during use
• Transition fit - The diameter of the largest permissible hole is greater
than the diameter of the smallest shaft and
• the diameter of the smallest hole is smaller than the diameter of the
largest shaft

Allowance
• An allowance is the intentional difference between the maximum material
limits, that is, LLH and HLS of the two mating parts.
 Hole Basis System
• the size of the hole is kept constant and the shaft size is varied
to give various types of fits.
• the fundamental deviation or lower deviation of the hole is
zero, that is, the lower limit of the hole is the same as the
basic size
• it is easier to manufacture shafts of varying sizes to the
required tolerances
 Shaft Basis System
• dimension of the shaft is kept constant and the hole size is
varied to obtain various types of fits
• not preferred in industries, as it requires more number of
standard-size tools such as reamers, broaches, and gauges
• used in situations where the standard shaft determines the
dimensions of the mating parts such as couplings, bearings,
collars, gears, and bushings
• A clearance fit has to be provided for a shaft and bearing
assembly having a diameter of 40 mm. Tolerances on hole and
shaft are 0.006 and 0.004 mm, respectively. The tolerances
are disposed unilaterally. If an allowance of 0.002 mm is
provided, find the limits of size for hole and shaft when (a)
hole basis system and (b) shaft basis system are used.
For the following hole and shaft assembly, determine (a) hole
and shaft tolerance and (b) type of fit.

(a) Determination of tolerance:

Tolerance on hole = HLH − LLH
= 20.025 − 20.00 = 0.025 mm
Tolerance on shaft = HLS − LLS
= 20.080 − 20.005 = 0.075 mm
(b) To determine the type of fit, calculate maximum and minimum clearances:
Maximum clearance = HLH − LLS
= 20.025 − 20.005 = 0.020 mm
(Clearance because the difference is positive)
Minimum clearance = LLH − HLS
= 20.00 − 20.080 = −0.08 mm
(Interference because the difference is negative)
Since one difference is positive and the other negative, it can be concluded that the
given hole
and shaft pair has a transition fit.
 SYSTEM OF LIMITS AND FITS
• The ISO system of limits and fits comprises 18 grades of
fundamental tolerances
• Indicate the level of accuracy of the manufacture
• tolerance grades from IT01, IT0, and IT1 to IT16 to realize the
required accuracy.
• Tolerance values corresponding to grades IT5–IT16 are
determined using the standard tolerance unit (i, in μm), which
is a function of basic size

• D is the geometric mean of the lower and upper diameters of

a particular diameter step

• The various steps specified for the diameter steps are as

follows: 1–3, 3–6, 6–10, 10–18, 18–30, 30–50, 50–80, 80–120,
120–180, 180–250, 250–315, 315–400, 400–500 500–630,
630–800, and 800–1000 mm.
• ISO system defines 28 classes of basic deviations for holes and
shafts marked by capital letters A, B, C, ..., ZC (with the
exception of I, L, O, Q, and W) and small letters a, b, c, ..., zc
(with the exception of i, l, o, q, and w)
• Consider the designation 40 H7/d9. In this example, the basic
size of the hole and shaft is 40 mm.
• The nature of fit for the hole basis system is designated by H
and the fundamental deviation of the hole is zero.
• The tolerance grade is indicated by IT7.
• The shaft has a d-type fit for which the fundamental deviation
(upper deviation) has a negative value, that is, its dimension
falls below the basic size having IT9 tolerance
 Gauges
• Inspection tools without scale
• Used to determine whether parts are made within limits
• In mass production, where a large number of similar
components are manufactured on an interchangeable basis,
measuring the dimensions of each part will be a time-
consuming and expensive exercise.
• they do not determine the actual size or dimensions
• GO and NO GO gauges correspond to MML and LML
 Taylor’s Principle
• GO gauge is designed to check maximum metal conditions,
that is, LLH and HLS.
• It should also simultaneously check as many related
dimensions, such as roundness, size, and location, as possible
• The NOT GO gauge is designed to check minimum metal
conditions, that is, HLH and LLS.
• It should check only one dimension at a time
• GO plug gauge check lower hole limit, roundness and
straightness of hole
 Classification of Gauges
1. Plain gauges d) According to their design:
(a) According to their type: (i) Single- and double-limit gauges
(i) Standard gauges (ii) Single- and double-ended gauges
(ii) Limit gauges (iii) Fixed and adjustable gauges
(b) According to their purpose: 2. Adjustable-type gap gauges
(i) Workshop 3. Miscellaneous gauges
(ii) Inspection (a) Combined-limit gauges
(iii) Reference, or master, or (b) Taper gauges
control gauges (c) Position gauges
(c) According to the form of the (d) Receiver gauges
tested surface:
(i) Plug gauges for checking
holes
(ii) Snap and ring gauges for
checking shafts
Acc to type
1. Standard gauges - If the Go gauge is an exact model of the
mating member whose dimensions to be checked, then such
a gauge is termed as the standard gauge.

2. Limit gauge - As there are two limits of a component (high and

low), two gauges are required to check each dimension of the
component. One gauge is called a “Go-Gauge” should pass
through or over the part, while the other gauge called a “Not-
Go-Gauge” should not pass through or over the part.
2. According to the Purpose:
(a) Workshop Gauges:W orkshop gauges are used by the machine operator to check
the dimensions of the components as they are being produced.
(b) Inspection Gauges - Inspection gauges are used by the inspectors for the final
acceptance of manufactured components when finished. These gauges have
slightly larger tolerance than the workshop gauges so as to accept component
slightly nearer the tolerance limit than the workshop gauges.
(c) Master Gauges:Master gauges are also referred as reference gauges. These are
used only for checking of other gauges.

3. Acc to form
(i) Dimension Measuring Gauges. – plug,pin,snap,ring gauges
(ii) Geometry Measuring Gauges – concentricty, profile, taper

4. Acc to design
• (i) Single limit, double limit.
• (ii) Single ended, double ended.
• (iii) Fixed, Fastened
• (iv) Integral end, Renewable end.
• (v) Solid end, Hollow end.
 Material for Gauges

• should be hard and wear resist

• capable of maintaining dimensional stability and form
• corrosion resistant.
• easily machinable, in order to obtain the required degree of
accuracy and surface finish.
• low coefficient of expansion
• High-carbon steel is the most suitable, can be heat treated
suitably to provide stability and high hardness. It can easily be
machined to a high degree of accuracy
• Mild steel gauuges are the most suitable for larger gauges. They
are carburized, case hardened and grinded and stress relieved.
• Chromium plating makes the surface of the gauge very hard, and
resistant to abrasion and corrosion
 Gauge Tolerance

• Gauges cannot be manufactured to their exact size or

dimensions
• dimensional variations arise due to the limitations of
the manufacturing process, skill of the operator, etc
• the tolerance that is allowed in the manufacture of
gauges is termed gauge maker’s tolerance
• gauge tolerance should be kept as minimum as
possible
• normal practice is to take gauge tolerance as 10% of
the work tolerance
 Wear Allowance
• GO side of the gauge should enter the hole or just pass over
the shaft under the weight of the gauge without using undue
force
• measuring surfaces of the gauge constantly rub against the
mating surfaces of the workpiece.
• GO gauges suffer wear on the measuring surfaces and thus
lose their initial dimension.
• allowance is added in for a plug gauge while subtracted for a
ring or gap gauge
• wear allowance of 10% of gauge tolerance is widely accepted
 Plug gauge
• To gauge the inside diameters of holes that
have been drilled or machined
• the gauge results in a yes/no condition only
– the tool is allowing the quality control
inspector to accept or reject a part
• Made of wear resisting steel
• Gauging surfaces are hardened , ground
and lapped
• Designated by Go and No Go
• They are of double end type for length upto 63
mm and single end for above 63 mm
• They are marked with Nominal size, tolerance
class, word Go and No GO, tolerance value
• No Go side painted with a red band
 Plain ring gauge
• Cylindrical ring, often steel, whose inside diameter is finished
to gauge tolerance and is used for checking the external
diameter of a cylindrical object
• Go and No Go type
 Slip gauges
• Material
• Finishing operations
• Surface roughness
• Wringing of slip gauges and the physics behind
• Steps to do wringing
• Sets and combination of sizes in a set
 Snap gauges
• It is a limit gauge with permanently or temporarily fixed
measurement aperture(s) (gaps) which is used to quickly
verify whether an outside dimension of a part matches a
preset dimension or falls within predefined tolerances
• A snap gauge usually has a "C" shaped frame with the
aperture(s) at the opening of the "C“
• It is a form of go/no go gauge
• Rapid checking possible
• Types of Snap Gauging:
• (1) Fixed limit Snap Gauges –
• Fixed limit snap gauges are designed to assess
dimensional tolerance for a single value of the
dimensional parameter.
• (2) Adjustable limit Snap Gauges-
• Adjustable limit Snap Gauges feature a locking
mechanism for the position of the anvils to allow
the dimension parameter to be adjusted to
different values as the metrology needs change.
• (3) Combined limit Snap Gauges –
• Combined limit snap gauges have the go and no-
go dimensional gauges on the same side of the
tool, with the go gauge on the outer edge and
the no-go gauge interior relative to the go gauge.
These are also called progressive snap gauges
since the assessment process takes place
sequentially with the go gauge contacting the
workpiece initially before the no-go gauge makes
contact.
• (4) Double-ended Snap Gauges-
• These types of snap gauges have a
double C frame with the go gauge
on one end or side and the no-go
gauge on the other side rather than
nested within a single set of jaws as
with the combined limit gauge.
• (5) Dial Snap Gauges-
• Dial Snap Gauge, also known as
snap indicator gauges; add a
display to the tool (either analog or
digital) that provides an indication
of the amount of deviation from
the nominal value exhibited by the
part being gauged.
 Feeler Gauges
• Used to measure gap widths normally under 1 mm
• They consist of a number of small lengths of steel of different
thicknesses with measurements marked on each piece.
• Stainless steel is a common material for feeler gauges
 Slip gauges
• They are used mainly used as measuring standards in the engineering
field.
• The individual gauge block is a metal or ceramic block that has been
precision ground and lapped to a specific thickness.
• The blocks are joined by a sliding process called wringing, which causes
their ultra-flat surfaces to cling together.
• The mechanism is a combination of
• Vacuum applies pressure between the blocks because the air is
squeezed out of the joint
• Surface tension from oil and water vapor that is present between the
blocks
• Molecular attraction that occurs when two very flat surfaces are
brought into contact; this force causes gauge blocks to adhere even
without surface lubricants, and in a vacuum

• The accuracy of micrometers, vernier calipers, dial

indicators can be checked by a slip gauge
 Dial Indicator
• Indication devices using mechanical
means like gears, levers for
magnification system
• Used as comparators or for making
linear measurements
• When they are used for
comparison measurement
purposes, they are known as
gauges
• Measures the displacement of
plunger on a circular dial by a
rotating pointer
Uses
• Determine error in geometrical
forms, eg taper, roundness etc
• Determining positional error, eg
parallelism, squareness etc
• Comparing heights
ADV
• Can detect small dimensional
variations