Contextualizing the

Scientific Revolution and

the Enlightenment
AP 4.1
Europeans’ view of the world

Changed due to:

Rediscovery of works from ancient Greece and

Rome(Renaissance)

Observation of the natural world(Scientific

Revolution)
New Ideas in Science
Based on:

Observation- using reason to watch what

happens in the natural world

Experimentation- designing tests that

can measure and explain why things happen

Mathematics- using data to reach

conclusions
Effects of Challenged classical views of:

New Ideas in The cosmos- heliocentric theory(Copernicus)- sun

Science at center of universe

Nature- Law of gravity(Newton)

Human body- circulation of blood(William Harvey)

Existing traditions of knowledge and the universe continued

Belief in spiritualism; geocentric theory etc.

Increased
emphasis on
reason

Due to spread of Scientific Revolution concepts

Enlightenment’s application of these concepts and practices to political, social,

and ethical issues

This emphasis did not go unchallenged

Especially by Catholic Church

Enlightenment thought
Focused on:

Empiricism- All knowledge is derived from sense-experience

Skepticism- not everything can be fully understood

Human reason- Use your senses and your brain to explain why things happen

Rationalism- opinions and actions should be based on reason and knowledge,

rather than religious beliefs and emotions

Classical sources of knowledge- texts from Ancient Greece and Rome

Effects of Enlightenment
thought
Challenged prevailing patterns of thought with
respect to:

Social order

Institutions of government

Role of faith
New public venues and
media
Popularized Enlightenment ideas

Coffee Houses, Libraries

Pamphlets, Magazines, Scientific

journals
New political and economic
theories
Challenged absolutism and mercantilism

Democracy and Constitutionalism

Capitalism and socialism(eventually)

Demand for religious toleration

Created by rational analysis of religious practices and development of natural

religion
Everyday life Experiences shaped by changes in:

Demographics- the people that

make up your society

Environment- how we interact

with the world

Medicine

Technology
Family and private life
Reflected new demographic patterns and the
effects of the commercial revolution

City and population growth

Cultural diversity and religious

pluralism

Increased standard of living, better

diets, and longer lives
The Scientific Revolution
AP 4.2
Astronomy
New ideas and methods
led individuals like
Copernicus, Galileo, and
Newton to question the
authority of the ancients
and traditional knowledge
and to develop a
heliocentric view of the
cosmos
Discoveries by
physicians- William
Harvey
Anatomical and medical- Example: circulation of
blood

Presented body as integrated system

Challenged traditional humoral theory of disease

espoused by Galen- treatment focused on
restoring balance
Paracelsus
German-Swiss physician and
alchemist

Established role of chemistry

in medicine
Andreas
Vesalius
Physician- revolutionized study
of biology

Wrote and illustrated first

comprehensive textbook of
anatomy
Bacon and
Descartes
Defined inductive and deductive
reasoning and promoted
experimentation and the use of
mathematics

Ultimately shaped the scientific method

Johannes Kepler
Planetary motion- planets move in elliptical orbits around the sun
Sir Isaac Newton
Formulated law of gravity

Helped prove elliptical movement of

planets

Principia- Provided mathematical proof of

his theories
Alchemy and Astrology

Continued to appeal to elites and some natural

philosophers

Shared notion of a predictable and knowable

universe

Many continued to believe the cosmos was

governed by spiritual forces
The Enlightenment
4.3
Applying scientific
principles to society

Voltaire and Diderot began to apply principles of Scientific

Revolution to society and human institutions

Voltaire opposed religious fanaticism- belief that your

religion was the one true religion

Diderot- published Encylcopedie- encyclopedia of world

knowledge, suppressed by French government for
supporting democracy, religious tolerance and other
radical ideas
Montesquieu - The
Spirit of Laws

Three political systems

Republic- power from the people

Democratic republic- offers broad citizenship

Aristocratic republic- defines citizenship narrowly

Monarchy- power in hands of ruler who is restrained by a set of laws

Despotism- ruler has no limits to power

Separation of
powers
Executive, legislative and
judicial powers must be
assigned to different bodies

Guarantee of due process and

elimination of slavery will
secure freedom for all
Cesare Beccarria- On Condemned torture and the death penalty

Crimes and Punishments the war of a nation against a citizen ... It appears absurd to
me that the laws, which are the expression of the public will
and which detest and punish homicide, commit murder
themselves, and in order to dissuade citizens from
assassination, commit public assassination. [

Crimes of every kind should be less frequent, in proportion

to the evil they produce to society ... If an equal
punishment be ordained for two crimes that injure society
in different degrees, there is nothing to deter men from
committing the greater as often as it is attended with
greater advantage.[5]

Father of criminal law and criminal justice

Locke and
Rousseau
Developed new political models based
on concept of natural rights and the
social contract

Locke- “People are sovereign and

consent to government for protection of
natural rights of life, liberty, and
property.”

Rousseau- government is contract

between people and rulers
Challenges to
Rousseau’s position on
women
Despite principles of equality espoused by
Enlightenment and French Revolution,
intellectuals such as Rousseau offered
controversial arguments for the exclusion of
women from political life
Mary Wollstonecraft
Vindication of the Rights of Women-
advocate of women's rights

Women are not naturally inferior

to men; appear to be because of lack of
education

Promotes a social order

founded on reason
Marquis de Supported liberal economy, free and equal
public instruction, constitutional government,
Condorcet and equal rights for women and people of all
races

Was branded a traitor for supporting the trial

of Louis XVI but opposing his execution

Died in prison during Reign of Terror

Institutions that
broadened the
audience
Institutions such as salons, explore and
disseminated Enlightenment culture

Salons- Gatherings where new

art and intellectual ideas could be
displayed and shared

Examples: Coffeehouses, Academies,

Lending libraries, Masonic lodges
Printed Increased in numbers despite censorship

Materials Served growing literate public and led to

development of public opinion

Feelings of the majority of a nation’s

people on a certain topic

Examples: Newspapers, Periodicals, Books,

Pamphlets, The Encyclopedie

Encyclopedie- encyclopedia
published in France
Self-Interest
Political theories of John Locke- society is
composed of individuals driven by self-interest

State originated in the consent of

the governed (social contract)

Contradicted idea of divine right or

tradition
New economic
theories
Mercantilist theories and
practice challenged by new
economic ideas

Adam Smith- Wealth of

Nations- Supported free trade
and free market
Physiocrats

Self-interest is basic motivation for each segment of the economy

People can determine for themselves what goods they want and what
work they will do

Promoted high prices for agricultural products

Productive work is source of national wealth

Labor, not the point of sale, is source of value

Francois
Quesnay

Dominant physiocrat- Tableau

Economique- First analytical
thought into economics

Agriculture is the only source

of wealth
Anne Robert
Jacques Turgot

Early advocate for economic

liberalism

Law of diminishing marginal

returns- Adding more workers
to a particular job will, at some
point, decrease the total
production
Challenges to prevailing patterns of
thought
Enlightenment thought focused on empiricism, skepticism, human reason,
rationalism, and classical sources of knowledge

Challenged prevailing patterns of thought toward social order, institutions of

government, and the role of faith
Intellectuals
Voltaire and Diderot- developed new philosophies of deism, skepticism, and
atheism

Deism- natural theology- God created all things but does not interfere with
human existence at all

Skepticism- Nothing can ever be known for certain

Atheism- A lack in belief of gods

David Hume
British empiricist- passion, rather than reason,
governs human behavior

We cannot actually perceive that one event

causes another

“Learning from past mistakes” presupposes

that the future will be like the past

Ethics are based on emotion, not morality

Baron d’Holbach
The System of Nature- Natural law; denied
existence of deity; universe is collection of
matter bound by natural laws

"It would be useless and almost unjust to insist

upon a man's being virtuous if he cannot be so
without being unhappy. So long as vice
renders him happy, he should love vice." [
Religious developments
Religion increasingly viewed as a matter of private
rather than public concern
Methodism Follows teachings of John Wesley

Originated within 18th-century Church of

England

Rejects predestination; accepts that salvation

is available for all

Had major impact on working class

Became religion of many American slaves

Revival of German Pietism
Combined emphasis on Bible with being humble before God

Revival in mid-19th century- urged people to return to traditional doctrine

18th-Century
Society and
Demographics
AP 4.4
17th Century
Society

Small landholdings, agricultural practices w/low productivity, poor transportation,

adverse weather

Limited and disrupted food supply

Caused periodic famines

Balance between population and food supply stabilized- resulted in steady

population growth
 Experiences of everyday life were
shaped by demographic, environmental,
medical, and technological changes

By middle of 18th century, higher

18th-Century agricultural productivity and improved

transportation increased food supply

Society Allowed populations to grow

Reduced demographic crises

(starvation etc.)

Known as Agricultural Revolution

Inoculation and disease
control

Plague disappeared as major epidemic disease

Inoculation reduced smallpox mortality (60 million died in 18th century)

Practice condemned because some people died from inoculation, about

2%

Inoculated people were also infectious and spread the disease

Lady Mary Wortley
Montagu
Spread the practice of smallpox
inoculation in England

Learned practice while her husband

served as British ambassador to the
Ottoman Empire

Eventually led to mass inoculation and the

creation of the smallpox vaccine by
Edward Jenner
 European Marriage Pattern

Illegitimate births increased

Population growth limited by European marriage pattern and, in some

areas, various methods of birth control
Increased emphasis on childhood

As infant and child mortality decreased and commercial wealth increased, families
dedicated more space and resources to children and child-rearing

More tender child-raising tactics were promoted

Also more space dedicated to private life and comfort

Rousseau

Boys’ education should include plenty of fresh air and exercise; practical craft
skills in addition to book learning

Girls’ education should focus on domestic responsibilities

Also advocated breastfeeding

Elite women adopted his ideas, except breastfeeding

Rousseau abandoned his five children

Education in
Napoleonic France
and Austria

Mandatory education for children- clergy put in charge

Produced an increased reading public- increased demands for printed reading

material
Painting and
Portraiture

Children included in
family portraits

Symbolized the new

attitude towards
children that was
developing throughout
Europe
Cities
Offered economic opportunities

Attracted increasing migration

from rural areas

Transformed urban life

Created new
challenges for new urbanites and their
families

How do you
find work? Who do you trust? Where do
Growth of Cities
Eroded traditional communal values

City governments strained to provide

protection and a healthy environment

Population of England rose from 5.5 million

in 1700 to 32 million by 19th century

Led to overcrowding and sanitary problems

Problems of Urban Life
Concentration of poor in cities led to greater
awareness of poverty, crime, and prostitution as
social problems

Prompted increased efforts to police

marginal groups
Poor Law in Britain
(1834)
Intended to curb the cost of poor relief in
Britain

Relief only given in workhouses; poor

conditions in workhouses would prevent most
from applying

Led to social unrest

Contagious
Diseases Act
Allowed police to arrest
suspected prostitutes in army
towns

Tested for
venereal disease

Confined to
hospitals if infected

Led to organized efforts for

women’s rights
 Produced more food using fewer
workers

People migrated from rural

areas to cities in search of work

Agricultural Became labor force during

Industrial Revolution

Revolution Farmers were no longer dependent on their

local markets.

Able to sell surplus products

without lowering prices
18th-Century
Culture and Arts
4.5
Printed Increased in numbers despite censorship

Materials Served growing literate public and led to

development of public opinion

Feelings of the majority of a nation’s

people on a certain topic

Examples: Newspapers, Periodicals, Books,

Pamphlets, The Encyclopedie

Encyclopedie- encyclopedia
published in France
Exposure to outside beliefs
Natural sciences, literature and popular culture exposed Europeans to
representations of peoples outside Europe

Occasionally led to challenges to accepted social norms

18th Century Art
The arts moved from celebration of religious
themes and royal power to an emphasis on
private life and the public good
Baroque art and music
Promoted religious feeling and was employed by
monarchs to illustrate state power- Lasted until 1750
Diego Velasquez
Paintings decorated royal court of Spain- gives insight of
royal court life in 17th century Spain

Glorified religion and/or the monarchy

Gian Bernini
George Frideric
Handel
Composed Messiah- Musical
Oratorio glorifying Jesus’ life
and death
J.S. Bach
German composer- works noted for intellectual rigor and emotional
expressiveness
Dutch painting
Expressed pride in their achievements, most notably their
independence from Spain

Focused on commercial society and enlightenment ideals

Rembrandt

Wide range of style and subject matter

Jan Vermeer
Specialized in scenes of
middle class life
Jacques Louis
David

French artist; supported

Robespierre and
Napoleon
Pantheon in
Paris
Early example of neo-
classicism- modeled after
Pantheon in Rome
Daniel Defoe
Robinson Crusoe- Second
only to Bible in number of
translations

Describes life of a man on

a remote island
Samuel
Richardson
Invented and used the letter
form of novel- Epistolary novel-
Action in novel described in a
series of letters between
various characters
Henry Fielding
English novelist and dramatist
known for humor and satire
Johann
Wolfgang von
Goethe
German novelist and
statesman
Jane Austen
British novelist- books comment and
critique British Gentry at end of 18th
century.
Consumer Shaped by new concern for privacy

Encouraged purchase of new goods for

Revolution home

Created new venues for leisure activities

Homes Built to include private retreats

Inner barriers provided privacy and

allowed rooms to have specific purposes

The Boudoir- allowed women privacy while

getting dressed

Made it possible for women to

change outfits during social gatherings
New Porcelain dishes- allowed people to have their
own plate
Consumer
Goods for Cotton and linens- lighter weight, could also
be used for decoration
Home
Mirrors- allowed for more fashionable
dressing

Glass windows created more sunlit

rooms

Prints- increased decoration; reduced dreary

conditions
New Leisure Coffeehouses

Venues Taverns

Theaters and opera houses

Allowed people to gather, discuss politics,

current events etc.

Provided entertainment and leisure activities

Enlightened and Other
Approaches to Power
4.6
 Enlightened Absolutism

Number of states in eastern and central Europe experimented with

Enlightened Absolutism during the 18th Century
Religious Toleration
By 1800, most governments in Western and
Central Europe had extended toleration to
Christian minorities and, in some states, civil
equality to Jews
Prussian and Habsburg
Rulers
Prussia rose to power and Habsburgs, centered in
Austria, shifted empire eastward

Result of limitation of the sovereignty of the Holy Roman

Empire in the Peace of Westphalia
Maria Theresa of
Austria
Limited papal influence

Strengthened central bureaucracy,

smoothed out provincial differences,
revamped tax system

No exemptions for nobles

Improved agriculture

Reduced power of lords over

their serfs
Joseph II of
Austria
Closer control of Catholic
Church

Religious toleration and civic

rights to Protestants and Jews

Abolished serfdom; paid

peasant labor in cash
Frederick Built best army in Europe and transformed
into a model military state
William I of
Prussia Expanded absolutism

Brought conflict with the Junkers(Prussian

nobility)- made them officers in Prussian army

Built exceptional bureaucracy

Rigid civil society; harsh peasant bondage;

Junker tyranny- highly militaristic country
Frederick II of Prussia
(Frederick the Great)
Captured Silesia from Austria in War of
Austrian Succession

Protected Prussia during Seven Years’ War-

defeated alliance of Austria, France and
Russia

Used enlightened absolutism to strengthen

state
Frederick II of
Prussia(Frederick the Great)
Allowed subjects to have own religious and
philosophical beliefs

Promoted education

Simplified laws, abolished torture

Promoted reconstruction of agriculture and

industry

Didn’t change social structure- serfdom,

noble privilege, oppression of Jews
remained