INSTITUTE OF ACCOUNTANCY ARUSHA

MODULE: RESEARCH METHODS

2024/2025
 What is research?
 It is an organized and systematic way of
studying a phenomena in order to
establish facts/answers to questions and
reach new conclusions.
 Systematic because there is a definite set
of procedures and steps which you will
follow.
 These procedures are always done in
order to get the most accurate results.
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RESEARCH PROCESS
 Research is what we do when we have a
question or a problem we want to resolve
 We may already think we know the answer
to our question already
 We may think the answer is obvious,
common sense even
 But until we have subjected our problem to
research, our 'knowledge' remains little
more than guesswork or at best, intuition.

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 Main Phases of Research Process
1. Identifying the problem and the research gap
2. Selecting Researchable topic
3. Designing research objectives, research
questions/ hypothesis
4. Literature review
5. Designing research methodologies
6. Data gathering
7. Data processing and analysis
8. Implications, Conclusions, and Recommendations
Characteristics of a good research
1. Supported by the Literature
2. Significant
3. Timely
4. Novel
5. Specific and Clear
6. Researchable
 1. Supported by the Literature
 Your research problem should be relevant to
the field and supported by a number of recent
peer-reviewed studies in the field. Even if you
identify the problem based on the
recommendation of one journal article or
dissertation, you will still need to conduct a
literature search and ensure that other
researchers support the problem and need for
conducting research to further address the
problem.
2. Significant
 Your research problem should have a positive
impact on the field. The impact can be
practical, in the form of direct application of
the results in the field, or conceptual, where
the work advances the field by filling a
knowledge gap.
3. Timely
 Your research problem should be related to
the current needs in the field and well-suited
for the present status of the issues in your
field. Explore what topics are being covered
in current journals in the field.
 4. Novel
 Your research problem should be original and
unique. It should seek to address a gap in our
knowledge or application. An exhaustive review of
literature can help you identify whether the problem
has already been addressed with your particular
sample and/or context. Talking to experts in the
research area can illuminate a problem. Replication
of an existing study warrants discussion of value
elsewhere, but novelty can be found in determining
if an already-resolved problem holds in a new
sample and/or context.
5. Specific and Clear
 Your research problem should be specific
enough to set the direction of the study, raise
research question(s), and determine an
appropriate research method and design.
Vague research problems may not be useful
to specify the direction of the study or
develop research questions.
 6. Researchable
 Research problems are solved through the scientific
method. This means research-ability, or feasibility of
the problem, is more important than all of the above
characteristics. You as the researcher should be
able to solve the problem with your abilities and
available research methods, designs, research
sites, resources, and timeframe. If a research
problem retains all of aforementioned
characteristics but it is not researchable, it may not
be an appropriate research problem.
How to Select Researchable Topics
 Research Topic
 A concept, subject or issue that can be studied
through research.
Factors that determine the
Selection of research topic
 The selection of a research topic is often the
result of many factors, example:
1. Personal interests, experiences, values, and
passions, the desire to satisfy scientific curiosity
2. Contemporary issues: The current political,
economic, and social climates
3. Literature review
4. Data accessibility
5. Sponsorship: Having a way to fund a study
6. Variables are clearly identified
1. Personal Factors
 Personal interests often influence
researchers’ specific research topics
 Having a strong personal interests can
lead to the willingness to make the
necessary investment of time and energy
 Ambitions for future prospectives
2. Contemporary issues
 Research and Social, Political and Economic
World
 Change in society influences research on
topics
 E.g. Gender, Sexual Orientation
 Before the 1970s, some studies focused on women,
as a result of the women's movement in the late
1960s and early 70s, scholars began to study
women and their lives
 Current events focus attention: e.g. natural
disasters, poverty, outbreak of pandemics like
COVID- 19 e.t.c.
3. Research Funding
 Some research projects are funded through private
foundations, government agencies, local and state
institutions, or corporate sponsors
 Funding research expresses a value choice
 The particular values associated with a specific

project affect funding as the appropriations process

for research is part of a larger political process
 The availability of funding and economic support can
influence a study
 The questions asked

 The amount and kind of data collected

 The availability of the resulting research report

 Reviewing the Literature in
choosing the Research topic
 Why?
 Be informed!
 Don’t want to duplicate pre-existing research.
Types of Literature
 Scholarly versus General Sources
 Scholarly: For professionals and students.
 General: For general public.
Scholarly literature
 Most scholarly works (primary sources) will
contain the following sections:
 Abstract
 Introduction
 Literature review
 Methods
 Results
 Discussion
 Conclusion and recommendations
Determine Variables to be measured
 A variable in research refers to a person, place,
thing, or phenomenon that you are trying to
measure in some way.
 The independent and dependent variables and
their relationship must be featured from the
research topic
 It is helpful to ensure a researchable topic and
determine the focus from the very biginning
 Narrow down the topic
• Example: Cell phones
 You cannot study everything connected to cell phones
 You could study the effect of cell phones on family
relationships
 You cannot study all age groups, but you can study a few
 You might not be able to study people in many
communities, but you might be able to study one or two
 You would not be able to study dozens of behaviors or
attitudes that change overtime, but you could study some
current attitudes and behaviors
 In the community in which I live, how does cell phone use
affect parent-child relationships; more specifically, how
does the use of cell phones affect parents’ and
adolescents’ attempts to maintain and resist parental
authority?
Characteristics of
Recommendable research topic
1. Researchable
2. Have both Independent variable(s) and
Dependent variable(s)
3. Variables should be measurable
4. Use action verb
5. Not too long/short
6. Focused/narrowed
How to introduce the research
problem
 Explain the background to the Problem and Context (Showing the
trend of the problem at global, regional and national levels)
 What is the main problem (to be translated into main objective)
and sub problems ( to be translated to specific objectives)
 What is the extent of the problem
 Support the problem with statistics
 Support the problem with policy statements and other
government/legal aspects
 What have been done so far to address the problem and how
successfully such strategies are
 Show the gap and sub gaps along the discussion
 Raise the research question and sub questions
 MUST BE ENRICHED WITH LITERATURE REVIEW
(CICTATIONS)
 How to write the statement of
research problem
 Briefly state the problem (summarize the background
to research problem in one or two sentences)
 What have been done to address the problem
 what have not been done (practical gap)
 What have been the effect of such missing attempt
and what will happen if such missing attempt is not
addressed
 What have been studies about the problem and what
not ( knowledge gap)
 What is the contribution of your study in addressing
the gap
Group work
 Read at least 10 statements of research
problem related to the area of your
specialization and evaluate them as per the
characteristics of good research problem.
Suggested Source:https://ndltd.org/ go to link
of south Africa
 Suggest and present a research problem
and researchable topic related to your field of
study
 CHAPTER TWO

Literature Reviews
Purpose of a Literature Review
The literature review is a critical look at the existing
research that is significant to the work that you are
carrying out.
 To provide background information
 To establish importance of the study
 To demonstrate familiarity of the researcher to the
study area
 To discover areas for further research
Characteristics of
Effective Literature Reviews
 NB. It is paramount to note that literature
review doesn’t mean merely the
presentation of the contents. But apart from
being relevant and current, it requires the
logic flow and more important the analysis
of such content as an academic input
 Characteristics of
Effective Literature Reviews
 Outlining important research trends from
global, regional and local contexts
 Assessing the strengths and weaknesses of
existing research in relation to your study
 Identifying potential gaps in knowledge in
relation to your study
 Establishing a need for current and/or future
research projects
Sections of literature review
 Theoretical
 Empirical
 Conceptual framework
 THEORETICAL REVIEW

• A theory refers to a set of statements of relationships

between VARIABLES
• Answer these questions:
• Which theory to review?
• Who developed the theory?
• What does the theory state?
• What are major variables and assumptions of the
theory?
• How does it relate to your study? Which variables
and insights adopted in your study and why
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THEORETICAL REVIEW

 One theory/model may be adopted if

justifiable
 In many cases the analysis of two or more
variables is expected to tradeoff the
weakness among them. However give
reasons of applying more than one theory
and how they compelement each other.
EMPIRICAL REVIEW

 This is a source of evidence acquired from

previous studies
 Split the section as per specifc objectives

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Steps for Writing a Literature
Review
 Planning
 Read critically
 argumentation
 Drafting
 Conceptual framework
 Research gap
 Revising
 Planning

Since there are lots of literatures, it is

important to save your time by planning
in advance of what you are going to read
 Planning
 Plan the main sections and sub sections of your literature review
where the objectives acts as main sections
 Determine the main sources of information such as internet
browsers, reports/policy from government and other agencies,
existing online scholarly databases that are relevant to your
study
 Identify and read from renown experts in the field
 Identifying a focus that allows you to sort and categorize
information according to how they fit to the study. Eliminate
irrelevant information
 Search for recent literatures and avoid outdated ones. If it’s a
policy/report ensure is the current
 Focus on the contexts of your study. If your study focuses on
Tanzania, prioritize on information about Tanzania.
Read crictically
 Collect and read material.
 Summarize sources.
 Who is the author?
 What is the author's main purpose?
 What is the author’s theoretical perspective? Research
methodology?
 Who is the intended audience?
 What is the principal point, conclusion, thesis, or question?
 How is the author’s position supported?
 How does this study relate to other studies of the problem or
topic?
 What does this study add to your project?
 Argumentation

Literature review is not meant for only

presentation of the content but mainly the
ability to make arguments from the content
 Four Argumentation Tasks

TASKS OF
LITERATURE
REVIEW

SUMMARIZE SYNTHESIZE(MAKE COMPARE AND RELATE TO YOUR

YOUR OWN VIEW) CRITIQUE STUDY
Summary and Synthesis
 In your own words, summarize and/or
synthesize the key findings relevant to your
study.
 Interpret the content
 What are the key arguments, key characteristics,
key concepts or key figures?
 What are the existing debates/theories?
Comparison and Critique
Evaluates the strength and weaknesses of the
work:
 How do the different studies relate to it? What is new,
different, or controversial?
 What views need further testing?
 What evidence is lacking, inconclusive, contradicting, or
too limited?
RELATE TO YOUR STUDY
 Show how it is useful to your study
 Indicate the variables or arguments you are
going to adopt in your study
 Show the gap and how is it addressed in your
study
Drafting

Organize the content clearly and

precisely
Drafting
 Write down what is relevant
 Use the objectives as main sub chapters
 Arrange the content in sections and sub sections under
each objective
 Ensure that you include both theoretical and imperial
contents.
 Usually start with narration of key concepts followed by
theoretical reviews and then empirical reviews.
 Each paragraph to stand for key idea (have the
introduction, main body, conclusion and transition
statement)
 Conceptual
framework
The researcher can either adopt the existing
theory/model, modify (adapt) the existing
theory/model or build a new model that combines
the variables from the theories explained
 Conceptual framework
 It is a written and/or visual presentation that: -explains
either graphically and/or in narrative form, the main things
to be studied – the key factors, concepts or variables -
and the presumed relationship among them.
 Provides the roadmap of your study
 It must reflect and operationalize the objectives of the
study
 It must reflect the constructs and variables pointed out in
literature review
 It guides the design of the research instruments like
questionnaire and some other methodological aspects
 Research gap

Summarize the literature review and the

research gap(s)
Revising

Proof read and perfect the work

Some Tips on Revising
 Title: Is my title consistent with the content of my paper?
 Introduction: Do I appropriately introduce the problem?
 Thesis: Does my review have a clear claim?
 Body: Is the organization clear? Have I provided
headings?
 Topic sentences: Have I clearly indicated the major idea(s)
of each paragraph?
 Is the review comprehensive?
 Transitions and connections: Does my writing flow?
 Conclusion: Do I provide sufficient closure?
 Spelling and Grammar: Are there any major spelling or
grammatical mistakes?
 CLASSIFICATION OF
RESEARCH
NOTE: IT IS NOT COMMON TO HAVE A
PURELY ONE TYPE OF RESEARCH.
THUS MANY RESEARCH ARE MIXED
ONES THOUGH ONE TYPE CAN BE
DOMINANT
Research can be classified
according to:
1.The Research Design
2. The Uses of Research
3. The handling of time during the
research
4. Approach used
According to Research Design

 Exploratory research
 Descriptive
 Causal
Exploratory research
 Is a research conducted for a problem
that has not been studied more clearly,
intended to establish priorities, develop
operational definitions and improve the
final research design. Exploratory
research helps determine the best
research design, data-collection
method and selection of subjects.
Descriptive research

Is used to describe characteristics of a population or

phenomenon being studied. It does not answer
questions about how/when/why the characteristics
occurred
 To describe data and characteristics about the
phenomenon being studied.
 Descriptive data for who, what questions
 The description is done by descriptive statistics, e.g.
frequencies, averages, mode, median, standard
deviation
 No causality is claimed
Causal research:

 The objective of causal research is to test

hypotheses about cause-and-effect
relationships.
 Determining which variable might be causing a
certain behavior in terms of cause- effect
relationship
 This type of research is very complex and the
researcher can never be completely certain
that there are not other factors influencing the
causal relationship, especially when dealing
with social science research
Classification according to use
 Applied research
 Basic research
Applied research
 Applied research - conducted when a
decision must be made about a specific real-
life problem.
 Management wants to make decision based
on the findings of this kind of study.
 For example, should we advertise? Should
we price our products above average?
 Management research is one of the types of
applied research.
Applied Research…….

 Applied Researchers may

investigate the ways to:
1. Improve agricultural crop
production
2. Treat or cure specific disease
3. Improve energy efficiency at home
and offices.
Basic Research - fundamental/pure
 Attempts to expand the limits of knowledge.
 Not directly involved in the solution to a
pragmatic problem.
 It is driven by scientific curiosity and or
interest in a scientific question.
 For example, is executive success correlated
with high need for achievement?
Time handling based classification

Time series
Cross section
Longitudinal research
Time series
 Data collected over a considerable period of
time on one or more variables
 Analyse Form 4 examination performance for
10 years
Cross section research
 Involve analysis of bulk data on one or more
variables collected in a one point of time
 Example: Compare Form Four results
between public and private schools in one
period of time for 500 schools
Longitudinal research

 Contain features of both time series and cross

section data
 Involves analysis of panel data that is data
collected over a considerable period of time
across many units.
 Longitudinal research, researchers examine the
features of a unit at more than one time.
 For example: Compare Form Four examination
results between 500 public and private schools
for 10 years
Approach used

Qualitative research
Quantitative research
Mixed research
Quantitative research

 In quantitative research data is

represented in the quantitative form in
the form of numbers. Statistical analysis
is conducted in quantitative research.
Qualitative research:
 This means that qualitative researchers study
things in their natural settings, attempting to make
sense of, or interpret, phenomena in terms of the
meanings people bring to them.
 It is used to gain an understanding of human
views/behavior including underlying reasons,
opinions, perceptions, motivations
 Example: To investigate the perceptions of teachers
on the reasons for mass failure in Mathematics
 However, qualitative data can be quantified and
analysed quantitatively
Mixed research approach
 Combines both quantitative and qualitative
characteristics
Summary: Qualitative Quantitative
Qual. Quant.
Type of reasoning
Subjectivity Objectivity
Meaning Causation

Open ended Type of question Pre-specified

Unstructured Structured
Flexible & Dynamic Non-flexible

Narrative Type of analysis Numeric

Category comparison Statistical inference

Natural setting Research Setting Controlled experiments

More interactivity Less or no
interactivity
 Writing the Research Report

The purpose of the written report is to

present the results of your research, but
more importantly to provide a persuasive
argument to readers of what you have
found.
How to Introduce a Research Problem

 Start by a brief explanation of the nature of the

phenomenon. For example if the research is about
the COVID-19 pandemic the researcher may define
the term, state the causes, symptoms, impact and
treatment of the pandemic. However, the
discussion should be limited by the nature of the
selected topic as one may not discuss every aspect
of the topic. Nevertheless, the discussion must
trend in such a way that the importance of the study
is revealed.
 How to Introduce a Research Problem

 Discuss how the situation (problem) trends from

different contexts for instance from first, second
and third World countries. The discussion can as
well trend from Countries outside Africa (globe
contexts), Africa and East Africa (regional
context), Tanzania (local context) and where
applicable organizational context. For example;
if a researcher is looking for the solution for
COVID – 19 pandemic in Tanzania, should
understand how the pandemic trend and dealt
with at different places of the globe.
How to Introduce a Research Problem

 The discussion of the historical contexts of the problem

should go along with the identification of the existing
gaps. In general the researcher should provide an
insight of what is expected and what have been
achieved. For example, what have been revealed
about COVID – 19 pandemic (may be causes and
symptoms) and what have not been revealed (may be
treatment) (knowledge gap). Another gap may be what
measures that have been taken to deal with the
situation (may be measures to reduce the spread of
the pandemic) and how effective they were on one side
and have not been implemented on the other side (i.e
practice gap).
How to Introduce a Research Problem

 The gaps should be discussed in such a way that the

main problem and sub problems are well portrayed
( to be translated to main and specific objectives)
 The policy issues and other governmental and
intergovernmental interventions should be discussed
along the historical contexts of the problem. These
evidences on the extent the problem received
governmental attention and so increase the
possibility of the research findings to be useful and
adopted.
How to Introduce a Research Problem

 The discussion can be supported by providing a trend

of statistical information to indicate the magnitude of
the problems
 The section should logically flow in a way that it ends
up by showing or stating and so convincing the
reader that the study of the phenomenon is inevitable
 The analysis should be enriched with literature
analysis for academic research and so opinions and
experiences should be avoided at this stage
How to Write a Statement of Research
Problem
 Briefly state the context of the problem (summarize
the historical contexts as discussed in the preceding
section)
 Write the actual problem statement as a declarative
statement or as a question.
 Explain how previous studies have addressed the
issue and where have fallen short due to certain
limitations (knowledge gap).
 Show the consequences if the problem/gap is not
addressed
 Outline how you plan to overcome or
circumvent previous roadblocks to fill these
deficiencies(depict the main objective)
 Show how the expected solution will be useful
to address the problem and positively impact
on the society
 Ensure the statement is lucid and to the point,
without any distracting information.
 Cite credible sources as deemed necessary
 Don’t exceed one page
How to Write Research
objectives
 Another key step to writing strong research objectives
is to use the SMART format. Using this format can
make your objectives clearer and easier to
understand, which can make you more likely to
achieve them. Make sure your objectives meet these
criteria
 Be specific about your desired outcomes. Your
objectives should be clearly written and leave no
room for confusion. This can help you keep them
narrow and focused.
How to Write Research
objectives
 Making your objectives measurable is essential to
achieving them. You can create metrics to measure
your progress toward achieving your objectives
 Be sure to create objectives that are achievable to
help you avoid getting overwhelmed by unrealistic
expectations. Make sure you have the resources and
budget to accomplish your objectives
 Make your objectives are relevant to your research
and your overall goals. This can help you stay
motivated and on track throughout your research
project
 How to Write Research
objectives
 You have to establish Time bound to help you
keep your research process on track. You can
set a major deadline for your entire project as
well as smaller deadlines for each
 Moreover, Ensure that objectives flow logically
from the statement of need and address the
problem, and that objectives should be
hierarchical and/or chronological
 The main objective reflects the main
problem/main gap while the specific objectives
reflect the sub problems/sub gaps
 General Considerations for
Writing a Research report
 Read as many past research reports as you can
 Begin writing up the report as soon as you can. Do not
leave it until you have finished your data collection
before you start writing up. Many sections, can be
drafted during or even before data collection.
 Write down ideas as soon as you get them, rather than
leaving them to the writing-up stage. Keep a research
diary where you can safely note any ideas. Not all of
your ideas will be useful, but it is certain that some of
them will be! Do not imagine that you will be able to
remember these ideas at a later date.
General Considerations for
Writing a Research report
 Be aware of the nature of the report and the intended
audience. If it is for a student research project, then
ensure you have read and understood the criteria laid
down by your institution in terms of content,
presentation, length and so on.
 If you are writing for a journal, ensure that your
research fits within the scope of that journal’s
objectives as well as its editorial requirements. If you
are producing a report or piece of consultancy,
ensure that you are clear about the requirements of
your audience.
General Considerations for
Writing a Research report
 You may not be able to write the final report out first
time. You will need to rewrite it a number of times
before it reaches completion. You should allow for
this when planning your research timetable, and not
become discouraged when the first draft is not
perfect.
 Evaluate the content of the report by getting
somebody else to read it with a critical eye.
 Make sure before you begin writing up that you make
backups of your work at every available opportunity.
Whatever you do, do not assume that whatever you
save on a hard drive will be safe!
General Considerations for
Writing a Research report
 You should keep your backups in a separate location.
As a further safety measure, print out what you have
written so far at regular intervals.
 The submission version should be error free at your
best level
 Maintain logical flow of idea. It is advisable for each
paragraph to present the main idea and each
paragraph to provide statement(s) pertaining to its
introduction, main body, conclusion, and linkage to
the next paragraph
General Considerations for
Writing a Research report
 Use the specific objectives as main
themes/chapters followed by sub themes/sub
chapters as a guide
 Maintain consistence and clarity
 Use varieties of techniques such as
narrations, figures, tables, and graphs to
present the work
 Use relevant data analysis technique. Eg.
Thematic for qualitative research and
statistical models for quantitative research
 General Considerations for
Writing a Research report
 Describe and justify the methodological aspects and
their justification, including the research location,
Research design, population, sampling procedures and
techniques, sample size, research instruments design,
data sources, data analysis tools and methods, data
reliability and validity, and ethical issues. Also
acknowledge the assumptions and limitations (if any) of
methods chosen.
General Considerations for
Writing a Research report
 Present the aspect in analytical and argumentative
manner. Interpret and discuss the literature, the
gaps, the findings and issues raised and justify your
position instead of merely presenting the content.
You can compare and contrast, show weaknesses
and/strengths of various aspects instead of merely
describing. Show how the presented aspects are
relevance to the study. For example; If you have
adapted several theories to guide the study you have
to compare and contrast their strength and
weaknesses in relation to the study, how they
complement each other and justify the aspects
adapted to the study.
General Considerations for
Writing a Research report
 Conclude as per specific objectives and present the
concrete statements derived from the discussion
instead of repeating the presentation of the findings.
 Recommend the viable solutions and direct the same
to the relevant and responsible parties
 Ensure that you have covered all important aspects
of the report. Usually the structure of the research
report follows the Institutes’ guide. However the
following main components are expected
11. Avoid plagiarism

• Unintended must be kept to minimum depending of

Institutional policy.
• You ca avoid by:
– Provide proper citations
– Paraphrasing
– Use quotations
– Avoid using a substantial part of other’ s work
TYPICAL RESEARCH REPORT STRUCTURE

1. Title Page 9. Discussion

2. Abstract 10.Conclusions and
3. Acknowledgements Recommendations
4. Contents 11. Reference List
 Table of content 12. Appendices
 List of Tables
 List of Figures

5. Introduction
6. Literature Review
7. Methodology
8. Results
ABSTRACT
Summarizes the whole work in a page
• What your research aim was.
• Key background theory.
• What data were collected from whom, and how.
• How it was analysed.
• Key findings.
•Conclusions
•Recommendations
INTRODUCTION
•Refer previous discussion/notes
LITERATURE REVIEW
• Refer previous discussion/notes
METHODOLOGY
Describe and and justify the methodological aspects and
their justification, including the research location,
Research design, population, sampling procedures and
techniques, sample size, research instruments design,
data sources, data analysis tools and methods, data
reliability and validity, and ethical issues. Also
acknowledge the assumptions and limitations (if any) of
methods chosen.
RESULTS

•Address each objectives.

•Use appropriate themes and sub themes(sections and
sub sections)
•Use various presentation techniques
•Provide simple interpretation/implication of the data
within and across themes
•Use quotes for qualitative data.
•You can quantify and use descriptive statistics for
qualitative data
•Only report relevant results.
WRITING THE DISCUSSION

 Discuss the implications of your results in light of your

research objectives.
 Uses other reference to discuss how your findings agree
or disagree with them.
 Establish your own position with reference to the other
references and your findings
 Put more focus on key/interesting/unique findings
Ask:
 Do your findings find support in the literature?
 Were your findings predicted by the literature?
 How does your research add to the literature?
 If your findings differed from expectations, then are there
any possible explanations why?
 Does the particular theory or model you have used still
hold true in light of your research?
 If the theory or model seems imperfect, then how can it
be refined in light of your research?
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
• What the key findings were.
•Should relate to aims/objectives in introduction and research
questions
•Conclude as per research questions and discussions
•Recommend as per research objective/research question
and conclusions
•Include recommendations for action and future research.
•Specify the responsible parties for action
•Recommendations should be viable
REFERENCES
Must be consistent with text.

APPENDICES
Must relate to the research, but not be directly related.
SAMPLING

A sample is “a smaller (but hopefully

representative) collection of units from a
population used to determine truths about that
population” (Field, 2005)

99
Why sampling?
Get information about large populations
 Less costs
 Less field time
 More accuracy i.e. Can Do A Better Job of
Data Collection
 When it’s impossible to study the whole
population
100
SAMPLING……

 What is your population of interest?

 To whom do you want to generalize your
results?
 All doctors
 School children
 Low income earners
 Ask: Can you sample the entire population?

101
SAMPLING…….

 When might you sample the entire population?


When your population is very small

When you have extensive resources

When you don’t expect a very high response
 Otherwise a study population is required

102
 103

SAMPLING BREAKDOWN
SAMPLING…….

STUDY POPULATION

SAMPLE

TARGET POPULATION

104
Sampling Methods: Random vs
non Random
 Random sampling
•
Every unit of the population has the same probability of
being included in the sample.
• A chance mechanism is used in the selection process.
• Eliminates bias in the selection process
• Also known as probability sampling
 Nonrandom Sampling
• Every unit of the population does not have the same
probability of being included in the sample.
• Open the selection bias
• appropriate data collection methods for most statistical
methods
• Also known as nonprobability sampling
Slide 7-105
Random sampling

 Simple Random Sample

 Stratified Random Sample
 Systematic Random Sample
 Cluster (or Area) Sampling

Slide 7-106
Simple random
 Number each frame unit from 1 to N.
 Use a random number generator to select n
distinct numbers between 1 and N,
inclusively.
 Easier to perform for small populations
 Cumbersome for large populations

Slide 7-107
01 Alaska Airlines 11 DuPont 21 LTV
02 Alcoa 12 Exxon 22 Litton
03 Amoco 13 Farah 23 Mead
04 Atlantic Richfield 14 GTE 24 Mobil
05 Bank of America 15 General Electric 25 Occidental Petroleum
06 Bell of Pennsylvania 16 General Mills 26 JCPenney
07 Chevron 17 General Dynamics 27 Philadelphia Electric
08 Chrysler 18 Grumman 28 Ryder
09 Citicorp 19 IBM 29 Sears
10 Disney 20 Kmart 30 Time

Slide 7-108
01 Alaska Airlines 11 DuPont 21 LTV
02 Alcoa 12 Exxon 22 Litton
03 Amoco 13 Farah 23 Mead
04 Atlantic Richfield 14 GTE 24 Mobil
05 Bank of America 15 General Electric 25 Occidental Petroleum
06 Bell Pennsylvania 16 General Mills 26 Penney
07 Chevron 17 General Dynamics 27 Philadelphia Electric
08 Chrysler 18 Grumman 28 Ryder
09 Citicorp 19 IBM 29 Sears
10 Disney 20 KMart 30 Time

 N = 30
n=6

Slide 7-109
 Stratified Random Sample
 Population is divided into nonoverlapping
subpopulations called strata
 A random sample is selected from each
stratum
 Potential for reducing sampling error

Slide 7-110
STRATIFIED SAMPLING…….

Draw a sample from each

stratum

111
 Systematic Sampling
 Convenient and relatively easy to
administer
 Population elements are an ordered
sequence (at least, conceptually).
 The first sample element is
selected randomly from the first k
population elements.
 Thereafter, sample elements are
selected at a constant interval, k,
from the ordered sequence frame.

Slide 7-112
Systematic random sampling

 Purchase orders for the previous fiscal year are

serialized 1 to 10,000 (N = 10,000).
 A sample of fifty (n = 50) purchases orders is
needed for an audit.
 k = 10,000/50 = 200
 First sample element randomly selected from the
first 200 purchase orders. Assume the 45th
purchase order was selected.
 Subsequent sample elements: 245, 445,
645, . . .
Slide 7-113
Cluster sampling

 Population is divided into non overlapping

clusters or areas
 A subset of the clusters is selected randomly for
the sample.

Slide 7-114
Cluster random sampling

• More convenient for geographically dispersed

populations
• Reduced travel costs to contact sample elements
• Simplified administration of the survey

Slide 7-115
NON PROBABILITY SAMPLING

 Any sampling method where some elements of

population have no chance of selection (these are
sometimes referred to as 'out of
coverage'/'undercovered'). It involves the selection of
elements based on assumptions regarding the
population of interest, which forms the criteria for
selection. Hence, because the selection of elements
is nonrandom, nonprobability sampling not allows the
estimation of sampling errors..
NONPROBABILITY SAMPLING…….

117
 CONVENIENCE SAMPLING

 Sometimes known as grab or opportunity

sampling or accidental or haphazard sampling.
 A type of nonprobability sampling which involves the
sample being drawn from that part of the population
which is close to hand. That is, readily available and
convenient.

118
Snow ball sampling
 In social science research,
snowball sampling is a similar
technique, where existing study
subjects are used to recruit more
subjects into the sample.

119
Judgmental sampling or
Purposive sampling
 - The researcher chooses the sample
based on who they think would be
appropriate for the study. This is used
primarily when there is a limited
number of people that have expertise in
the area being researched

120
Quota Sampling

 First identify the group randomly and their

proportions as they are represented in the
population
 Then convenience or judgment sampling is
used to select the required number of subjects
from each stratum.
Exercise 2
 Read carefully the thesis/dissertation used in
exercise. Describe and evaluate the
relevance of the population, sampling
framework, sampling techniques and
procedures applied
Research Ethics

 Ethics: Principles for guiding decision

making and reconciling conflicting issues
 Research ethics concerns the
responsibility of researchers to be honest
and respectful to all individuals who are
affected by their research studies or their
reports of the studies’ results.
Examples of research subject to risk

 Research involving vulnerable groups;

 Research involving sensitive topics;

 Research involving access to confidential

records or personal information;

 Research that could induce psychological

stress, anxiety, humiliation or more than

minimal pain;
 Research involving unpleasant

interventions.
Areas for Ethical Concerns

1. The relationship between society

and science.
 Many research ideas should come
from areas considered important in
society.
 However, the governments,
researchers’ interest , and research
funding agencies may influence the
research areas.
2. Professional issues.
 The primary ethical concern here is fraudulent activity by
scientists such as plagiarism where one literally present
another's’ work as his/her own work
3. Treatment of research participants.
 This is probably the most fundamental
ethical issue.
 It involves insuring that research
participants are not harmed physically
or psychologically.
Example of Measures to protect the research
participants
 1. Informed Consent
 This is the process of providing the research
participants with information enables them to make
an informed decision as to whether they want to
participate in the research study.
 State the purpose of the research and describe the procedures to be followed.
 Describe any potential risks or discomforts the participant may encounter.
 Describe any potential benefits from participation.
 Describe extant to which results will be kept confidential.
 Give a list of names the participants may contact with any questions they have.
 State that participant is voluntary and that they are free to withdraw from the
study at any time.
 2. Avoidance of Deception
 Not to provide false information to the participant about the
nature and/or purpose of the study
3. Freedom to Withdraw

 Participants must be informed that they are

free to withdraw from the study at any time
without penalty.

 If you have a power relationship with the

participants you must be extra careful to make
sure that they really do feel free to withdraw.
4. Protection from Mental and Physical Harm

 This is the most fundamental ethical issue

confronting the researcher.
 Educational research generally poses
minimal risk to participants.
 5. Protection of the participants’ identity

 Confidentiality: It requires that you guarantee that no one will be

individually identifiable in any way by you, that all your tables, reports,
and publications will only discuss findings in the aggregate.
QUALITATIVE DATA
ANALYSIS
 1. Thematic Analysis
 Definition: Identifies, analyzes, and reports
patterns or themes within data.
 Process: Involves coding data, grouping
codes into themes, and interpreting
meanings.
 Example:
In interviews with primary school teachers
about integrating sports into the curriculum, the
analyst codes responses like "sports create
bonding" and "students work better in teams."
These codes are grouped into the theme:
Cooperation and Social Skills Development.
 2. Content Analysis

 Definition: Systematic analysis of the

content of communication by counting
occurrences of specific words, phrases, or
concepts.
 Process: Can be both inductive (data-
driven) or deductive (theory-driven).
 Example:

A study on Tanzanian primary school policies

might analyze school reports and extract the
frequency of terms like "sports," "teamwork,"
and "academic achievement" to see if sports
activities are being emphasized in school
programs
3. Narrative Analysis

 Definition: Focuses on the stories people

tell and how these narratives shape their
understanding of the world.
 Process: Analyzes how individuals
structure their experiences and make sense
of events over time.
Example:

A researcher gathers life histories from

students to understand how sports activities
have influenced their development. One student
might narrate how participating in football
helped them become more confident and make
new friends.
4. Grounded Theory Analysis

Definition: Aims to generate new theories

directly from the data, rather than applying
existing theories.
Process: Data is collected and analyzed
simultaneously, with emerging concepts guiding
further data collection.
Example:

 If researchers are studying how sports

impact school cooperation, they might not
start with a predefined framework. Through
continuous interviews with teachers and
students, they develop a theory that
“structured sports competitions foster
leadership among students.”
5. Discourse Analysis

 Definition: Examines how language is used

in a specific context and how it reflects social
and cultural norms.
 Process: Analyzes written or spoken
language to explore deeper meanings and
social implications.
Example:

Analyzing the language used by Tanzanian

teachers when discussing physical education
(e.g., "playtime," "not serious work") may reveal
underlying attitudes toward sports in the
curriculum.
 Content analysis. This refers to the process of
categorizing verbal or behavioural data to
classify, summarize and tabulate the data.
 Narrative analysis. This method involves the
reformulation of stories presented by
respondents taking into account context of each
case and different experiences of each
respondent. In other words, narrative analysis is
the revision of primary qualitative data by
researcher.
 6. Phenomenological Analysis

 Definition: Focuses on understanding

people's lived experiences and the meanings
they attach to them.
 Process: Requires in-depth interviews, with
emphasis on participants' subjective
experiences.
Example:

 A study explores how students experience

teamwork in sports. Through interviews,
researchers capture the feelings students
associate with winning or losing and how
these experiences impact their motivation in
both sports and academics.