Instruction Set

Each microprocessor is designed to execute a specific group of operations. This

group of operations is called an instruction set. This instruction set defines
what the microprocessor can and cannot do. The programs can be written
for microprocessor based on its instruction set.

Word Size
Number of bits that can be processed by a processor in a single
instruction is called its word size. Word size determines the amount of RAM
that can be accessed at one go and total number of pins on the
microprocessor. Total number of input and output pins in turn determines
the architecture of the microprocessor. It depends upon the width of
internal data bus, registers, ALU, etc. An 8-bit microprocessor can process 8-
bit data at a time. The word size or word length ranges from 4 bits to 64 bits
depending upon the type of the microcomputer
Evolution of Microprocessor:
It can be classified as following types

First generation of processor: 4-bit Microprocessor

The first microprocessor was introduced in 1971 by Intel Corp. It was named
Intel 4004 as it was a 4 bit processor. It was a processor on a single chip.
It could perform simple arithmetic and logic operations such as addition,
subtraction, Boolean AND & Boolean OR. It had a control unit capable of
performing control functions like fetching an instruction from memory,
decoding it, and generating control pulses to execute it. It was able to
operate on 4 bits of data at a time. This first microprocessor was quite a
success in industry. Soon other microprocessors were also introduced. Intel
introduced the enhanced version of 4004, the 4040. Some other 4 bit
processors are International’s PPS4 and Toshiba’s T3472.
Second generation of processor: 8-bit Microprocessor
The first 8 bit microprocessor which could perform arithmetic and
logic operations on 8 bit words was introduced in 1973 again by Intel.
This was Intel 8008 and was later followed by an improved version,
Intel 8088. Some other 8 bit processors are Zilog-80 and Motorola
M6800.
Third generation of processor: 16-bit Microprocessor
The 8-bit processors were followed by 16 bit processors. They are
Intel 8086 and 80286.
Fourth generation of processor: 32-bit Microprocessor
The 32 bit microprocessors were introduced by several companies but
the most popular one is Intel 80386.
Fifth generation of processor: Pentium Series
Instead of 80586, Intel came out with a new processor namely Pentium processor.
Its performance is closer to RISC performance. Pentium was followed by Pentium
Pro CPU.
Pentium Pro allows allow multiple CPUs in a single system in order to achieve
multiprocessing. The MMX extension was added to Pentium Pro and the result was
Pentium II. The low cost version of Pentium II is Celeron. The Pentium III provided
high performance floating point operations for certain types of computations by
using the SIMD extensions to the instruction set. These new instructions make the
Pentium III faster than high-end RISC CPUs.
MMX (MultiMedia eXtensions): MMX is a set of multimedia instructions introduced by Intel in 1996 with
its Pentium MMX processor. MMX was designed to enhance the performance of multimedia and floating-
point intensive applications, such as audio, video, and 3D graphics.
SIMD (Single Instruction, Multiple Data) Extensions: SIMD is a parallel computing technique that allows
the same operation to be performed on multiple data elements simultaneously, making it useful for tasks
that require repetitive calculations over large datasets, such as image processing, scientific computations,
and cryptography
ARCHITECTURE OF 8085 MICROPROCESSOR

The 8085 microprocessor is an 8-bit processor available as a 40-pin IC package and uses +5 V for power. It can run at a maximum
frequency of 3 MHz. Its data bus width is 8-bit and address bus width is 16-bit, thus it can address 216 = 64 KB of memory.

Note:

architecture;design, structure, and functionality

THE SALIENT FEATURES OF 8085 µP ARE:

 It is a 8 bit microprocessor.
 It is manufactured with N-MOS technology. (N-MOS stands for N-Channel Metal-
Oxide-Semiconductor. It refers to a type of transistor used in electronic circuits, primarily
for switching and amplification)
 It has 16-bit address bus and hence can address up to 216 = 65536 bytes (64KB)
memory locations through A0-A15.
 The first 8 lines of address bus and 8 lines of data bus are multiplexed AD0 – AD7.
 Data bus is a group of 8 lines D0 – D7.
 It supports external interrupt request.
 A 16 bit program counter (PC)
 A 16 bit stack pointer (SP)
 Six 8-bit general purpose register arranged in pairs: BC,
DE, HL.
 It requires a signal +5V power supply and operates at
3.2 MHZ single phase clock.
 It is enclosed with 40 pins DIP (Dual in line package).
Block Diagram of 8085
•The flow of an Instruction Cycle in 8085 Architecture :
1. Execution starts with Program Counter. It starts program execution with
the next address field. it fetches an instruction from the memory
location pointed by Program Counter.
2. For address fetching from the memory, multiplexed address/data bus
acts as an address bus and after fetching instruction this address bus
will now acts as a data bus and extract data from the specified memory
location and send this data on an 8-bit internal bus. For multiplexed
address/data bus Address Latch Enable(ALE) Pin is used. If ALE = 1
(Multiplexed bus is Address Bus otherwise it acts as Data Bus).
3. After data fetching data will go into the Instruction Register it will store
data fetched from memory and now data is ready for decoding so for
this Instruction decoder register is used.
4. After that timing and control signal circuit comes into the picture. It sends
control signals all over the microprocessor to tell the microprocessor
whether the given instruction is for READ/WRITE and whether it is for
MEMORY/I-O Device activity.
5. Hence according to timing and control signal pins, logical and arithmetic
operations are performed and according to that data fetching from the
different registers is done by a microprocessor, and mathematical operation
is carried out by ALU. And according to operations Flag register changes
dynamically.
6. With the help of Serial I/O data pin(SID or SOD Pins) we can send or receive
input/output to external devices .in this way execution cycle is carried out.
7. While execution is going on if there is any interrupt detected then it
will stop execution of the current process and Invoke Interrupt
Service Routine (ISR) Function. Which will stop the current execution and
do execution of the current occurred interrupt after that normal execution
will be performed
The main functional components of 8085
microprocessor are as given below:
i. Register Section
ii.Arithmetic and Logic Unit
iii.Timing and Control Section
iv. Interrupt Control
v. Serial Input / Output Control
REGISTER SECTION
The 8085 microprocessor contains eight addressable 8-bit
registers namely:
1. A (Accumulator) register
2. F Flag register (Flag flip-flops)
3. B register
4. C register
5. D register
6. E register
7. H register
8. L register
Out of these registers B, C, D, E, H and L registers are 8-
bit general purpose registers. These registers can either
be used as single register or a combination of two registers
as 16 bit register pair. The Valid register pairs are B-C,
D-E or H-L register pairs. The higher order byte of 16 bit
data is stored in first register (B in B-C register pair), and
low order byte in the second register (C in B-C register
pair). The H-L register pair can also be used for register
indirect addressing; since this register pair can also
The 8085 has six general-purpose registers to store 8-bit data; these are
identified as B, C, D, E, H and L. they can be combined as register pairs - BC, DE
and HL to perform some 16-bit operations. The programmer can use these
registers to store or copy data into the register by using data copy instructions.

•The large number of general purpose registers gives more

flexibility and ease in the programming. However, the general
purpose registers are limited as registers occupy more space
on the silicon chip.
• Beside these general purpose registers, the 8085 has remaining
two 8-bit registers Accumulator (A) and Flag (F) as special
purpose registers and two 16 bit registers namely Program
counter (PC) and stack pointer (SP).
Accumulator (A)
As discussed in preceding in the above section,
accumulator is a 8 bit buffer register extensively used
in arithmetic, logic, load and store operations as well as
in input / output instructions. All the arithmetic and
logical operations are performed on the accumulator
contents; i.e. one of the operand is always taken into the
accumulator.
Program Counter – 16 bit register
As discussed before ,The program counter is a 16 bit register. It
is used to send 16 bit address to fetch the instruction from the
memory. It acts as a pointer which indicates the address
of the next instruction to be fetched and executed. The
program counter is updated after an instruction has been
fetched by the processor. If an instruction is one byte
instruction, then the program counter will be updated by one
(i.e. PC = PC + 1). Similarly, for two and three byte
instructions, the program counter will be updated by two (i.e.
PC = PC + 2) or three (i.e. PC = PC + 3) locations
respectively.
Stack Pointer – 16 bit register
The stack is an area of RAM (random access memory or
read / write memory) in which temporary information
is stored. It is stored on First-In-Last-Out (FILO) basis. An
address in the RAM area is assigned to the stack pointer
where the first information is stored as the first stack
entry. This is done by initializing stack pointer by an
instruction. Higher stack entries are made at the
progressively decreasing addresses.
.
ARITHMETIC AND LOGICAL UNIT (ALU)
As discussed earlier ,The arithmetic and logical unit (ALU) basically
consists of accumulator (A), flag register (F) and a temporary
register (which is inaccessible by the programmer or user). This unit
carries out the arithmetic and logic calculations of the data stored in
general purpose registers or in memory locations. The arithmetic
operations are ADD, SUB, compare, increments, decrements and
complements etc.; while logical operations are AND, OR, XOR and
Rotate. The result of these operations could be placed in the
accumulator or elsewhere through the internal bus. Arithmetic
operations are usually carried out in 2’s complement adder / subtrator
discussed in the preceding chapter. For these operations, ALU receives
the control signals from the timing and control unit.
•
ADDRESS BUFFER AND ADDRESS-DATA BUFFER

It has already been discussed that 8085 requires 8-bit data bus and 16-bit
address bus, as the memory address is of 16 bits. More number of IC pins are
required if separate address and data bus are introduced. To restrict the number
of pins of 8085 to only 40, lower address lines A0-A7 and data lines D0-D7 are
used in multiplexed mode. The multiplexed lines are designed as
Address/Data Bus (AD0-AD7). So whenever 16-bit address is transmitted by
the microprocessor 8 MSBs of the address lines are sent on the Address Bus
(A15-A8) and 8 LSBs of the lines are sent on the Address/Data Bus (AD7-AD0).
The 8 LSBs of the address are then latched either into memory or external latch
so that the complete address remains available for further operation. The 8-bit
Address/Data Bus will now be free for the data transmission