A Solar Inverter

An Overview

11/23/2024 1
Outline
 Definitions
 Back ground
 Electrical Property
 Classification of Inverters
 Functions and Features
 Classification of Inverters
 PV-Solar System Configurations
 How Inverter works
 Inverter Selection

11/23/2024 2
 Definition
 The inverter converts the DC (Direct Current) power produced by a
battery and solar module to AC (Alternating Current) power required by
most appliances.
 Since most of the appliances we are using run on AC volts,( 220V ac,
50Hz) the Power Inverter will be the heart of our Solar Energy System.
 It not only converts the low voltage DC to the 220 volts AC that runs
most appliances, but some of them can also charge the batteries if
connected to the utility grid or AC generator
 Almost all off-grid PV system have an inverter installed to provide AC
power comparable to the grid.
 A large variety of inverters are available on the market with generally
different types of electronics and output wave form and wide range of
power ratings and battery source voltages.
11/23/2024 3
 Cont…
 Identifying basic electrical properties, waveforms and their
characteristics relative to inverter design and operation.
 Explaining the basic types of inverter circuit designs and
their components.
 Understanding the differences in operating principles and
specifications for stand-alone and interactive inverters.
 Identifying key specifications and ratings for interactive
inverters required for systems design and installation.

11/23/2024 4
 History
 Inverters are used in PV systems to
convert direct current (DC) power
from batteries or PV arrays into
alternating current (AC) power.
 The first inverters/converters used
motor-generator sets, but were costly,
heavy and inefficient.
 Modern inverters use solid-state
designs and microprocessor controls
to produce high quality AC power very
efficiently.

11/23/2024 5
Electrical Property
 Basic electrical properties and
principles
are fundamental to understanding how
inverters are designed and operate,
including:
 Direct current and alternating current
 Waveform types and parameters
 Power and energy
 Ohm's law
 Single-phase and three-phase power
 Resistive and reactive loads
 Real, apparent and reactive power
 Power quality
11/23/2024 6
Switching Control
 Line-commutated inverters use an external source,
such as the utility grid to trigger switching elements
and synchronize their output.
 Used for grid-connected inverters only.
 Self-commutated inverters control switching
elements and regulate their waveform output with
internal software and controls.
 Used for stand-alone or interactive inverters.

11/23/2024 7
How Inverters are made
 Invertersproduce AC power
output from DC power input
using different circuit designs.
 Power Electronic converters and
switching devices are used.
 Voltage Source Inverters
 Current source Inverters
+400V D C B us

A C L in e _ 1
Q3 Q5
L2

C3

A C L in e _ 2

PWM4 DRIVER DRIVER PWM3

Q4 Q6
11/23/2024 8
0V D C Bus
 Types of Solar Photovoltaic Systems

SOLAR DC – DC INVERTE AC LOAD

AC LOAD
PV CONVER R
ARRAY TER

SOLAR PV DC – DC INVERTER DISTRIBU

MPPT / TION
ARRAY CONVERT
DUTY BATTERY PANEL
ER
CYCLE BANK
MPPT /
CONTRO DUTY BATTERY ELECTRIC
L CYCLE BANK UTILITY
CONTROL
DC LOAD
DC LOAD

Stand Alone PV System Grid Connected PV System

11/23/2024 9
Cont… DC AC
BUS BUS

SOLAR PV DC-DC
ARRAY CONVERT
WIND
ER
TURBINE
BI-
DIRECTIONAL
AC VOLTAGE
DC-DC
&
CONVERTER
FREQUENCY
CONTROL

FUEL CELL DC-DC

BATTERY GENERATOR
CONVERT
BANK
ER

DISTRIBUTION
DC LOAD
PANEL

AC LOAD
Hybrid PV System 11/23/2024 10
Solar inverters may be
classified into three broad
types
 Stand-Alone Inverters

 Operate from batteries and supply power independent of the

utility grid.
 Utility-Interactive or Grid-Connected Inverters
 Operate from PV arrays and supply power in parallel with the
utility grid.
 Bi-Modal or Battery-Based Interactive Inverters (Inverter Charger)
 Operate as diversionary charge controllers, and produce AC
power output to regulate PV array battery charging when the grid
is energized.
11/23/2024 11
 Transfer PV system operation to a stand-alone mode and provide
Inverters For SHS
 Check surge power tolerance
 Some appliance such as TV, Fridge requires
high current at start up.
 Inverter must have tolerance of these
surge current
Example: Rated :
Surge : 150W (continuous)
500W (within one minutes)
 Choose low self power consumption and
high efficiency type

11/23/2024 12
Inverter Output waveforms
• The square wave Inverter voltage may cause
distortions of electronics and harm power supplies.
• Modified Square Wave inverters generate a
rectangular output waveform called modified
square, which approximates a sine wave.
• These inverters are less expensive than sine wave
inverter and can be applied for powering almost
any kind of appliance except for sensitive
electronic devices,
• Sine Wave Inverters generate pure sine wave
voltage like the electrical grid. They are more
expensive than Modified Square Wave inverters
but are ideal for all appliances (even sensitive
electronics) and do not strain the power supplies
of devices or cause distortions.
Summary
• Sine wave output is ideal
• Due to cost limitation, modified sine wave types
are common for small- scale
11/23/2024 13
application
• Rectangular wave type might have some problem
Stand-Alone & Interactive Inverter

11/23/2024 14
 Stand Alone System
• Stand-alone inverters use batteries for DC
power input
• PV arrays or other DC sources are used
to charge the battery independently.
• Common DC input voltage 12V, 24V and
48 V for residential application, up to
480 V for industrial applications.
• Supply power to AC loads isolated from the
grid; inverter power rating dictates
maximum AC load.
• Often include battery charger function for
utilizing an independent AC input source
(e.g., generator or grid)
• Can not synchronize with and feed power
back into the grid.
• Output power rating must be at least equal 11/23/2024 15

to the single largest connected load [NEC

Utility Interactive Inverters
(Grid Tie PV-System)
 Interactive inverters use PV arrays for
DC power input, and supply
synchronized AC output power in
parallel with the utility grid.
 Site AC loads may be served by the
inverter output, utility or both. Excess
power not needed by local loads flows
to the grid.
 Power ratings limit the size of the
connected PV array; output is independent
of loads.
 All listed interactive inverters produce
utility-grade sine wave output and
include anti-islanding safety features 11/23/2024 16

to de-energize inverter output to the

 Features of Grid-Tie System
 Converting direct current into a possibly sinusoidal-form alternating
current
 Achieving a high degree of efficiency (>95%) in partial as well as in
peak loads
 Feeding the current synchronously with the grid frequency
 MPP tracking
 Monitoring the grid for voltage, frequency and grid impedance in
order to prevent an inadvertent stand-alone operation
 Measures for personnel protection:
– Inverter with transformer: insulation monitoring of the solar generator
– Inverter without transformer: residual current monitoring of the solar generator
 Preparation of actual condition data of the plant (power, current,
voltage, error codes) via an external data interface.
11/23/2024 17
 Types of Interactive Inverters
(Grid Tie System)
 Module-Level Inverters
 200-300 W, includes AC modules and micro inverters integral to or
installed at the PV module level.
 String Inverters
 2-12 kW, designed for residential and small commercial applications
using 1-6 series-connected PV array source circuits.
 Central Inverters
 30-50 kW up to 500 kW, designed for commercial applications with
homogeneous arrays.
 Utility-Scale Inverters
 500 kW to 1 MW, designed for solar farms. Bimodal Inverters 2-10
kW, battery-based interactive inverters that provide grid backup18 to
11/23/2024

critical loads.
Module-Level Inverter
 AC modules are factory- integrated
PV modules with interactive inverters.
 Micro inverters are similar in concept
but are separate equipment.
 Typically 200-300 W rated maximum
AC output (approx. PV module size).
 Used primarily for residential and
small commercial applications, and
can achieve greater energy harvest
from partially shaded and multi-
direction array.
 Some times it is called micro-
inverters 11/23/2024 19
 String Inverters
 String inverters are small
inverters in the 1 to 12 kW size
range, intended for residential
and small commercial
applications.
 Generally single-phase, usually
limited to 1 to 6 parallel-
connected source circuits, or
"strings".
 Some integrate source circuit
combiners, fuses and
disconnects into a single unit. 11/23/2024 20
 Central Inverters
 Centralinverters start at 30-50
kW up to 500 kW, and
interconnect to 3-phase grids.
 Bestsuited for homogeneous
PV arrays having all the same
modules and source circuit
configurations, and aligned
and oriented in the same
direction with no shading.
11/23/2024 21
 Utility Scale Inverter
 Most commercial PV inverters up to 500 kW installed on
public and private properties are interconnected to the grid
at service voltages less than 600 VAC.
 These systems must comply with NEC requirements and use listed
inverters and other equipment.
 PV arrays are less than 600 VDC.
 Large inverters 500 kW to 1 MW and higher used in PV
power plant installations are interconnected to the grid at
distribution voltages up to 38 kV.
 For utility-controlled sites, certain variances with the NEC and
product listing requirements may apply.
 PV arrays may operate up to 1000 VDC
11/23/2024 22
Cont…
 Utility-scale inverters use higher
DC input and AC output voltages
to reduce losses, and the size and
costs of the conductors and
switchgear required.
 DC input from PV arrays 900 to 1000
VDC
 AC output to grid at distribution level
voltages up to 35 kV.
 Packaged systems include
inverters, transformers,
switchgear, climate-controlled
enclosure and mounting platform
as a pre-engineered unit. 11/23/2024 23
Bimodal Inverter
(Inverter Charger)
 Bimodal inverters use batteries for DC
power input and may operate in either
interactive or stand-alone mode.
 In interactive mode, the inverter
produces AC power output in
proportion to PV array production,
while maintaining a prescribed
maximum battery voltage.
 Upon loss of grid voltage, the inverter
automatically transfers to stand-alone
mode, and powers backup loads
isolated from grid.
 Bimodal inverters may also include
load control, battery charging, and 11/23/2024 24

generator starting functions.

Summary
 PV module: Turns light into electricity. A group of solar
cells in a sealed unit.
 Grid-tied inverter: Also called interactive inverter. An
inverter that reads the voltage of the grid and produces as
much power and current as it can, regardless of loads. For
instance a 5kW inverter can only put out 5kW. Grid tied
inverters are sold according to maximum output power. They
also have dc and ac operating voltage ranges.
 Microinverter: A small inverter that is mounted behind a
PV module.
 AC module: A module with ac output listed for such use.
 Loads: Devices that use energy.
11/23/2024 25
Summary: Stand-Alone Inverters
 It is used in isolated systems.
 The inverter draws its DC energy from batteries
charged by photovoltaic arrays.
 Many stand-alone inverters also incorporate integral
battery chargers to replenish the battery from an AC
source.
 Normally these do not interface in any way with the
utility grid.
 Itdoes not required to have anti-islanding
protection. 11/23/2024 26
Summary: Grid-Tie Inverters
 It match phase with a utility-supplied sine wave.
 Grid-tie
inverters are designed to shut down
automatically upon loss of utility supply.
 They do not provide backup power during utility
outages.
 Gridtie inverter converts DC power produced
by PV array to AC power.

11/23/2024 27
Summary: Battery Backup
Inverters (Inverter Charger)
 These are special inverters which are designed to
draw energy from a battery.
 Itmanage the battery charge via an on board
charger, and export excess energy to the utility grid.
 These inverters are capable of supplying AC energy
to selected loads during a utility outage
 The battery backup inverters are also required to be
installed with an anti-islanding protection.
11/23/2024 28
PV-Solar System Configurations
 The advantage of this
concept is that only a
single inverter is needed.
 The disadvantages: If the
individual strings are
differently shaded then the
parallel connection leads
to mismatching losses.
 Added to this is the high
effort (and possible losses)
in the direct current
cabling.
11/23/2024 29
Cont…
 A generator connection box is not necessary as
each string is individually MPP-controlled
 It is easy to monitor. Compared to the central
inverter variant, the cabling effort on the direct
current side is much simpler.
 In practice two parallel strings are often
connected to one string inverter when it is
certain that both strings have the same structure
and will not be shaded.

11/23/2024 30
Cont…
 One can dispense with direct current cabling
altogether in the concept of the module inverter
(Figure(c)).
 Here each module has its own inverter that is
attached directly to the rear of the module.
 This means that each module is individually
monitored and can be kept in the MPP.
 However, this concept also has clear disadvantages.
An important problem is that the inverters are
installed with the modules on the roof.
 Thus, they are subject to wind, weather and high
temperature fluctuations, which do not really
increase the life of the electronic components.
 Added to this is that a failed inverter can only be
replaced with much effort.
 These reasons have led to module inverters being
almost only used in demo-projects.
11/23/2024 31
 Cont…
 reducing the mismatching losses
 The device is especially suited
for plants with partial shading
in which the string with
shaded modules is to be
individually MPP controlled
 A further application case would
be, for instance, plants with
Figure : Arrangement of a multistring inverter for modules on a south as well as on
connecting different part-generators: The three
inputs are separately MPP-controlled and then fed into a
a west-facing roof.
common direct voltage bus

** Reading Assignment:- Master-Slave11/23/2024

Configuration
32
 Isolation
Table String configurations depending on isolation and DC–DC stage

11/23/2024 33
 Single Stage and Double Stage
Inverter
Single Stage:
 Higher conversion efficiency
 Lower cost
 Single MPPT

Two-stage:
 Lower conversion efficiency
 Higher cost
 Multiple MPPTs

11/23/2024 34
Inverter Classification with
Transformers

Figure : Principle of the inverter with mains transformer:

The voltage signal received from the PWM bridge is
converted to the desired mains voltage by the transformer

Figure: Overall arrangement of an inverter without

transformer: Besides the actual grid feed-in it Figure: Principle of an inverter with high-frequency
must fulfill a number of other functions such as transformer: The DC voltage is chopped by means of a HF
MPP tracking, residual current measurement and bridge and can thus be galvanically isolated by a low-loss
grid transformer of11/23/2024
low inductance. After
35
rectifying and flip bridge
monitoring the desired 50 Hz signal is finally available
Example: Utility Scale PV system

 Figure: Typical utility-scale PV plant based on central inverter

11/23/2024 36

configuration
 How Inverter Works
• For sinusoidal ac outputs, the magnitude,
frequency, and phase should be controllable.
• According to the type of the load nature,
Inverter topologies can be considered as
1. voltage source inverters (VSIs)
2. current source inverters (CSIs) – used with
capacitive load where di/dt spikes become
very high.
NB: VSI structures are the most widely used
because they naturally behave as voltage
sources as required by many industrial
applications, such as adjustable speed
drives (ASDs), which are the most popular
application of inverters; 11/23/2024 37
 Cnd…
Single phase Full-Bridge VSI
Voltage source inverter.

Current source inverter.

DC-link Inverters (ASD-appl.)

11/23/2024 38
AC Waveform Generation
(Single phase Full-bridge VSI Inverter)
S1,S2 ON; S3,S4 OFF
S3,S4 ON ; S1,S2 OFF

S2

VDC

11/23/2024 39
 AC Waveforms

Low pass filter here is used as Harmonics Filtering

11/23/2024 40
 Cnd…
• Output of the inverter is “chopped
AC voltage with zero DC
component”. It contain harmonics.
• An LC section low-pass filter is
normally fitted at the inverter
output to reduce the high
frequency harmonics.
• In some applications such as UPS,
“high purity” sine wave output is
required. Good filtering is a must.
• In some applications such as AC
motor drive, filtering is not
required. 11/23/2024 41
Output voltage harmonics/Distortion
 Harmonics cause distortion on the output
voltage.
• Lower order harmonics (3rd, 5th etc) are
very difficult to filter, due to the filter size
and high filter order. They can cause
serious voltage distortion.
• Why need to consider harmonics?
– Sinusoidal waveform quality must match
international std.
– “Power Quality” issue.
– Harmonics may cause degradation of
equipment. Equipment need to be “de-
rated”.
• Total Harmonic Distortion (THD) is a
measure to determine the “quality” of a 11/23/2024 42

given waveform.
 Fourier Series
 Study of harmonics requires
understanding of wave shapes.
 Fourier Series is a tool to analyze
wave shapes.
A square wave is a non-sinusoidal periodic waveform
(which can be represented as an infinite summation of
sinusoidal waves), in which the amplitude alternates at a
steady frequency between fixed minimum and maximum
values, with the same duration at minimum and maximum

11/23/2024 43
Cnd…

11/23/2024 44
Spectra of square wave

 Spectra (harmonics) characteristics:

– Harmonic decreases with a factor of
(1/n).
– Even harmonics are absent
– Nearest harmonics is the 3rd. If
fundamental is 50Hz, then nearest
harmonic is 150Hz.
– Due to the small separation between
the fundamental and harmonics,
output low-pass filter design can be
very difficult.
11/23/2024 45
 Quasi-square wave (QSW)

NB: Quasi-Square Wave some

times called
“Modified Square Wave” 11/23/2024 46
Inverter
 UL Standards
Std. 1741 Inverters, Converters, Controllers and
Interconnection System Equipment for Use with
Distributed
Energy Resources

 Applies to both stand-alone and interactive inverters.

 IEEE1547 Standard for Interconnecting Distributed

Resources
with Electric Power Systems

 Applies to interactive inverters and systems.

 NationalElectrical Code (NEC), NFPA 70 11/23/2024 47

Applies to all inverters and PV system installations.

 Inverter
 Both Power
stand-alone Rating inverters are rated for
and interactive
their
maximum continuous AC power and current output over a

specified temperature range.

 Inverter power ratings are limited by the temperature of
their
switching elements. Larger inverters use cooling fans.

 Stand-alone inverters limit power output by disconnecting AC

loads when
their maximum DC input current is exceeded.

 Interactiveinverters limit their maximum power output by

11/23/2024 48

tracking the PV
Inverter Voltage
 For stand-alone Rating
inverters, the DC input voltage is based on a
nominal battery voltage:

 Inverters less than 1 kW may use a 12 V battery, while large

inverters use a nominal DC bus voltage of 24 V, 48 V or
higher.

 For interactive inverters, the DC input voltage covers a wide

range (usually over 200 V) that permits the connection of
different voltage arrays operating under a wide temperature
range.

 String sizing is used to match the array voltage and size to the inverter
DC
input requirements.
11/23/2024 49
 The AC output voltage for all inverters is based on common
electrical system configurations and ANSI standards.
 Inverter Efficiency
 The efficiency of an inverter
indicates how much DC power
is converted to AC power.
 Some of the power can be lost
as heat, and also some stand-
by power is consumed for
keeping the inverter in
powered mode. The general
efficiency formula is

with
P AC : alternating current power at output of the inverter. 11/23/2024 50

P DC : direct current power at input of the inverter.

 Calculating efficiency of a solar
module:
Efficiency is the ratio of watts per square meter of output at
STC to the irradiance at STC, which is 1000 watts per square
meter.
 For instance, if a PV module was making 150 watts per
square meter, then 150 watts per square meter output /
1000 watts per square meter (STC) input = .15 or 15%
efficiency.
 Let us do an example calculation:
Example 250W PV Module
Dimensions 1638 × 982mm
1.638m × 0.982m = 1.6 square meters
250W/1.6 square meters = 156W/m2 11/23/2024 51
Cont…
 Inverter efficiency testing is conducted over a range of operating
voltages and power levels.

11/23/2024 52
 Cont…
 There are three types of efficiency ranking
used for inverters.
 Peak efficiency (shown by arrow in Figure
next) indicates the performance of the
inverter at the optimal power output. It shows
the maximum point for a particular inverter
and can be used as a criterion of its quality.
 European efficiency is the weighted number
taking into account how often the inverter will
operate at different power outputs. It is
sometimes more useful than peak efficiency
as it shows how the inverter performs at
different output levels during a solar day.
 California Energy Commission (CEC) efficiency
is also a weighed efficiency, similar to the
European efficiency, but it uses different
assumptions on weighing factors. 11/23/2024 53
 European Efficiency (Weighted
Efficiency)
 Actually the peak efficiency of an
inverter is not that important from the
point of view of the operator of a
photovoltaic plant.
 Decisive for the yield of the plant is the
mean efficiency over the whole year.
 For the sake of clarity, Figure next
shows an example from the year 2000
of the measured frequency with which
various classes of radiation occurred at the
site of Freiburg (Germany) (solid line).
 The first bar, for instance, shows that the Figure: Relative frequencies of the radiation in the year
irradiance between 0 and 50 W/m2 2000 as well as annual energy portions of the individual
contribute almost 1.5% to the annual radiation classes in Freiburg: The low radiation classes seen
energy. over the year provide relatively high power portions. The
radiation measurements were taken at close intervals as
 The irradiance up to 500 W/m2 over the year “momentary values” (10 seconds averaged)
amounts to approximately 30% of the
overall energy. 11/23/2024 54
Cont…
 For the inverter this means that it is often working in the lower
part-load region.
 For this reason the DIN EN 50524 standard specifies the European
Efficiency ȠEu that weights the individual part load efficiencies
according to how often they occur in Central Europe:

 From the equation it can be seen that the inverter in this model is
operated at 20% of its operating time with the nominal power (PDC
= PDC_N).
 The efficiency of the inverter at half of its nominal power ( Ƞ50% ) is
11/23/2024 55
weighted at 48%, and so on
 Maximum Power Point Tracking
 All interactive inverters employ maximum power point
(MPPT)
tracking
(MPPT) functions to extract maximum output from PV
arrays.

 Some inverters use MPPT at the source circuit or subarray

level to
maximize array output.

 MPPT is not usually incorporated in battery-based

inverters,
although some charge controllers provide MPPT
functions. 11/23/2024 56
 Cont…
 There are various methods of finding the MPP
of which the Perturb and Observe method
has become the most popular.
 The flow diagram of the algorithm can be seen
in Figure shown right.
 Most of the MPP trackers start at the open
circuit point of the I/V curve. First the actual
power is determined and then the duty factor
is increased.
 If the new power is greater than the old value,
then the tracking was correct and the duty
factor is raised further.
 If the MPP is exceeded then the measured
power is decreased and the duty factor is
reduced again.
 Thus the actual operating point varies slightly
11/23/2024 57
about the MPP.
 Grounding & Ungrounded Arrays
 Most interactive inverters allow configurations for grounding
either the positive or negative pole of the PV array.
 Performance enhancements are achieved with certain PV modules using
a ground reference (SunPower).
 The grounding method for PV arrays affects the design of
inverter switching, as well as overcurrent protection and fault
detection for the system.
 All U.S. inverters prior to 2010 use a grounded DC current-
carrying conductor from the array (positive or negative).
 Ungrounded PV arrays are permitted by the NEC, and can help
facilitate fault detection within the array. Special requirements
apply to these inverters and systems.
11/23/2024 58
Use of Bypass Diodes (Reducing
Shading Losses)

11/23/2024 59
Cont…
• A bypass diode is connected anti-parallel to
every solar cell. As long as there is no
shading, all cells have a positive voltage.
• This voltage acts as reverse voltage for the
diodes; they conduct no current and create
no disturbance.
• If Shady is now again three-quarters
covered by shade, then this cell has a
negative voltage. This means that the diode
conducts and Shady is bridged.
• The remaining 35 cells can therefore conduct
their full current.
• However, the bypass diode has a threshold
voltage V of approximately 0.7 V, which is
approximately the open circuit voltage of a
11/23/2024 60

solar cell.
Th
Inverter Selection
 Selecting and specifying the best inverter for a given
application involves considering the system design and
installation requirements.
 Inverter specification sheets are critical.
 Inverter selection is often the first consideration in
system design, and based on:
 The type of electrical service and voltage.
 Anticipated size and locations of the array.
 For interactive inverters, optimal DC ratings for the PV
array are 110-130% of the inverter maximum continuous
AC power output rating.
11/23/2024 61
 DC Input
Cont… • Maximum array voltage (open-
 Stand-alone
circuit, cold)
and interactive • Recommended maximum array
inverters have similar but power
different specifications due to • Start voltage and operating range
their different application. • MPPT voltage range
 Standard specifications for all • Maximum usable input current
• Maximum array and source circuit
types of inverters include:
current
 AC output power ratings • Ground fault and arc fault detection
 DC input voltage AC Output
 AC output voltage • Maximum continuous output power
 Power
• Maximum continuous output
conversion efficiency
current
• Maximum output overcurrent device
11/23/2024 62

rating
 Cont…
Performance
 Nominal and weighted efficiencies
 Stand-by losses (nighttime)

Other Features
Monitoring and communications
 Integral DC or AC
interface
disconnects
Physical
 Number of source circuit
 Operating temperature range
 combiner and fuse/circuit
 Size and weight Mounting locations,
ratings
 enclosure type  Standard and extended
 Conductor termination sizes and warranties
torque specifications
 Conduit knockout sizes and 11/23/2024 63

configurations
Dimensioning of Inverters (Power of
inverter)
The inverters of the 1990s had relatively poor efficiencies in the lower part-
load region.
 For this reason they were often under-dimensioned by 20%, meaning
that for a PV plant with 2 kWp an inverter would be used whose
maximum input power was 1.6 kW.
 This corresponds to a solar generator over-dimensioning factor kOver of
With
PSTC : Nominal Power at STC
PDC_N : DC nominal power at
the inverter input
 Thus, these inverters achieved average part-load regions even for low
radiation and thus higher efficiencies.
 The disadvantage, naturally, was that for nominal powers of the PV
generator (e.g., on a sunny cold day in May) there was a limitation of the
inverter and much energy was given away. 11/23/2024 64
 Cont…
 Today’s inverters have much better part-load behavior so that
under dimensioning of the inverter hardly makes sense any more.
 Meanwhile increasing use is made of the so-called design factor
SRAC (Sizing Ratio). This refers to the output power PAC_N of the
inverter

 The reason for this new reference value is that some inverter
producers declare input powers that are too high so that the
devices often work in overload operation.

11/23/2024 65
 Cont…
 There the radiation measurements of Figure
(shown on slide number 54) were used in
order to determine a realistic annual
average efficiency of an inverter without
transformer.
 The result is shown in Figure right: Taking into
account the hourly mean values, one can
afford to use a design factor of 1.1 without
any energy losses.
 However, things are different when using the
momentary values (10-second mean Figure : Annual efficiency of an inverter without
values). transformer in dependence of the design factor:
 Here it is seen that SRAC should be a When viewing the radiation momentary values it is
maximum of 1.0 in order not to reduce seen that the design factor should be less than 1.0 in
the yields. order to reach the maximum yields.

Why does the timely resolution of the weather

data have an influence on the results of 11/23/2024 66
** Reading Assignment “Voltage & Current Dimensioning
dimensioning the inverter????????
Thank You So Much!!

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