CS 332: Algorithms

Graph Algorithms

David Luebke 1
11/23/24
 Administrative
● Test postponed to Friday
● Homework:
■ Turned in last night by midnight: full credit
■ Turned in tonight by midnight: 1 day late, 10% off
■ Turned in tomorrow night: 2 days late, 30% off
■ Extra credit lateness measured separately

David Luebke 2
11/23/24
 Review: Graphs
● A graph G = (V, E)
■ V = set of vertices, E = set of edges
■ Dense graph: |E|  |V|2; Sparse graph: |E|  |V|
■ Undirected graph:
○ Edge (u,v) = edge (v,u)
○ No self-loops
■ Directed graph:
○ Edge (u,v) goes from vertex u to vertex v, notated uv
■ A weighted graph associates weights with either the
edges or the vertices

David Luebke 3
11/23/24
 Review: Representing Graphs
● Assume V = {1, 2, …, n}
● An adjacency matrix represents the graph as a n x n
matrix A:
■ A[i, j] = 1 if edge (i, j)  E (or weight of edge)
= 0 if edge (i, j)  E
■ Storage requirements: O(V2)
○ A dense representation
■ But, can be very efficient for small graphs
○ Especially if store just one bit/edge
○ Undirected graph: only need one diagonal of matrix

David Luebke 4
11/23/24
 Review: Graph Searching
● Given: a graph G = (V, E), directed or undirected
● Goal: methodically explore every vertex and
every edge
● Ultimately: build a tree on the graph
■ Pick a vertex as the root
■ Choose certain edges to produce a tree
■ Note: might also build a forest if graph is not
connected

David Luebke 5
11/23/24
 Review: Breadth-First Search
● “Explore” a graph, turning it into a tree
■ One vertex at a time
■ Expand frontier of explored vertices across the
breadth of the frontier
● Builds a tree over the graph
■ Pick a source vertex to be the root
■ Find (“discover”) its children, then their children,
etc.

David Luebke 6
11/23/24
 Review: Breadth-First Search
● Again will associate vertex “colors” to guide the
algorithm
■ White vertices have not been discovered
○ All vertices start out white
■ Grey vertices are discovered but not fully explored
○ They may be adjacent to white vertices
■ Black vertices are discovered and fully explored
○ They are adjacent only to black and gray vertices

● Explore vertices by scanning adjacency list of grey

vertices

David Luebke 7
11/23/24
 Review: Breadth-First Search
BFS(G, s) {
initialize vertices;
Q = {s}; // Q is a queue (duh); initialize to s
while (Q not empty) {
u = RemoveTop(Q);
for each v  u->adj {
if (v->color == WHITE)
v->color = GREY;
v->d = u->d + 1;
v->p = u; What does v->d represent?
Enqueue(Q, v);
What does v->p represent?
}
u->color = BLACK;
}
}

David Luebke 8
11/23/24
 Breadth-First Search: Example

r s t u

   

   
v w x y

David Luebke 9
11/23/24
 Breadth-First Search: Example

r s t u

 0  

   
v w x y

Q: s
David Luebke 10
11/23/24
 Breadth-First Search: Example

r s t u

1 0  

 1  
v w x y

Q: w r
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 Breadth-First Search: Example

r s t u

1 0 2 

 1 2 
v w x y

Q: r t x
David Luebke 12
11/23/24
 Breadth-First Search: Example

r s t u

1 0 2 

2 1 2 
v w x y

Q: t x v
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11/23/24
 Breadth-First Search: Example

r s t u

1 0 2 3

2 1 2 
v w x y

Q: x v u
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11/23/24
 Breadth-First Search: Example

r s t u

1 0 2 3

2 1 2 3
v w x y

Q: v u y
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11/23/24
 Breadth-First Search: Example

r s t u

1 0 2 3

2 1 2 3
v w x y

Q: u y
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11/23/24
 Breadth-First Search: Example

r s t u

1 0 2 3

2 1 2 3
v w x y

Q: y
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11/23/24
 Breadth-First Search: Example

r s t u

1 0 2 3

2 1 2 3
v w x y

Q: Ø
David Luebke 18
11/23/24
 BFS: The Code Again
BFS(G, s) {
initialize vertices; Touch every vertex: O(V)
Q = {s};
while (Q not empty) {
u = RemoveTop(Q);
for each v  u->adj { u = every vertex, but only once
if (v->color == WHITE) (Why?)
v->color = GREY;
So v = every vertexv->d = u->d + 1;
that appears in v->p = u;
some other vert’s Enqueue(Q, v);
adjacency }list
u->color = BLACK;
} What will be the running time?
}
Total running time: O(V+E)

David Luebke 19
11/23/24
 BFS: The Code Again
BFS(G, s) {
initialize vertices;
Q = {s};
while (Q not empty) {
u = RemoveTop(Q);
for each v  u->adj {
if (v->color == WHITE)
v->color = GREY;
v->d = u->d + 1;
v->p = u;
Enqueue(Q, v);
}
u->color = BLACK; What will be the storage cost
} in addition to storing the graph?
}
Total space used:
O(max(degree(v))) = O(E)
David Luebke 20
11/23/24
 Breadth-First Search: Properties
● BFS calculates the shortest-path distance to the
source node
■ Shortest-path distance (s,v) = minimum number of
edges from s to v, or  if v not reachable from s
■ Proof given in the book (p. 472-5)
● BFS builds breadth-first tree, in which paths to
root represent shortest paths in G
■ Thus can use BFS to calculate shortest path from
one vertex to another in O(V+E) time

David Luebke 21
11/23/24
 Depth-First Search
● Depth-first search is another strategy for
exploring a graph
■ Explore “deeper” in the graph whenever possible
■ Edges are explored out of the most recently
discovered vertex v that still has unexplored edges
■ When all of v’s edges have been explored,
backtrack to the vertex from which v was
discovered

David Luebke 22
11/23/24
 Depth-First Search
● Vertices initially colored white
● Then colored gray when discovered
● Then black when finished

David Luebke 23
11/23/24
 Depth-First Search: The Code
DFS(G) DFS_Visit(u)
{ {
u->color = GREY;
for each vertex u  G->V
time = time+1;
{
u->d = time;
u->color = WHITE;
for each v  u->Adj[]
}
{
time = 0;
if (v->color == WHITE)
for each vertex u  G->V
DFS_Visit(v);
{
}
if (u->color == WHITE)
u->color = BLACK;
DFS_Visit(u);
time = time+1;
}
u->f = time;
}
}

David Luebke 24
11/23/24
 Depth-First Search: The Code
DFS(G) DFS_Visit(u)
{ {
u->color = GREY;
for each vertex u  G->V
time = time+1;
{
u->d = time;
u->color = WHITE;
for each v  u->Adj[]
}
{
time = 0;
if (v->color == WHITE)
for each vertex u  G->V
DFS_Visit(v);
{
}
if (u->color == WHITE)
u->color = BLACK;
DFS_Visit(u);
time = time+1;
}
u->f = time;
}
}

What does u->d represent?

David Luebke 25
11/23/24
 Depth-First Search: The Code
DFS(G) DFS_Visit(u)
{ {
u->color = GREY;
for each vertex u  G->V
time = time+1;
{
u->d = time;
u->color = WHITE;
for each v  u->Adj[]
}
{
time = 0;
if (v->color == WHITE)
for each vertex u  G->V
DFS_Visit(v);
{
}
if (u->color == WHITE)
u->color = BLACK;
DFS_Visit(u);
time = time+1;
}
u->f = time;
}
}

What does u->f represent?

David Luebke 26
11/23/24
 Depth-First Search: The Code
DFS(G) DFS_Visit(u)
{ {
u->color = GREY;
for each vertex u  G->V
time = time+1;
{
u->d = time;
u->color = WHITE;
for each v  u->Adj[]
}
{
time = 0;
if (v->color == WHITE)
for each vertex u  G->V
DFS_Visit(v);
{
}
if (u->color == WHITE)
u->color = BLACK;
DFS_Visit(u);
time = time+1;
}
u->f = time;
}
}

Will all vertices eventually be colored black?

David Luebke 27
11/23/24
 Depth-First Search: The Code
DFS(G) DFS_Visit(u)
{ {
u->color = GREY;
for each vertex u  G->V
time = time+1;
{
u->d = time;
u->color = WHITE;
for each v  u->Adj[]
}
{
time = 0;
if (v->color == WHITE)
for each vertex u  G->V
DFS_Visit(v);
{
}
if (u->color == WHITE)
u->color = BLACK;
DFS_Visit(u);
time = time+1;
}
u->f = time;
}
}

What will be the running time?

David Luebke 28
11/23/24
 Depth-First Search: The Code
DFS(G) DFS_Visit(u)
{ {
u->color = GREY;
for each vertex u  G->V
time = time+1;
{
u->d = time;
u->color = WHITE;
for each v  u->Adj[]
}
{
time = 0;
if (v->color == WHITE)
for each vertex u  G->V
DFS_Visit(v);
{
}
if (u->color == WHITE)
u->color = BLACK;
DFS_Visit(u);
time = time+1;
}
u->f = time;
}
}
Running time: O(n2) because call DFS_Visit on each vertex,
and the loop over Adj[] can run as many as |V| times
David Luebke 29
11/23/24
 Depth-First Search: The Code
DFS(G) DFS_Visit(u)
{ {
u->color = GREY;
for each vertex u  G->V
time = time+1;
{
u->d = time;
u->color = WHITE;
for each v  u->Adj[]
}
{
time = 0;
if (v->color == WHITE)
for each vertex u  G->V
DFS_Visit(v);
{
}
if (u->color == WHITE)
u->color = BLACK;
DFS_Visit(u);
time = time+1;
}
u->f = time;
}
}
BUT, there is actually a tighter bound.
How many times will DFS_Visit() actually be called?
David Luebke 30
11/23/24
 Depth-First Search: The Code
DFS(G) DFS_Visit(u)
{ {
u->color = GREY;
for each vertex u  G->V
time = time+1;
{
u->d = time;
u->color = WHITE;
for each v  u->Adj[]
}
{
time = 0;
if (v->color == WHITE)
for each vertex u  G->V
DFS_Visit(v);
{
}
if (u->color == WHITE)
u->color = BLACK;
DFS_Visit(u);
time = time+1;
}
u->f = time;
}
}

So, running time of DFS = O(V+E)

David Luebke 31
11/23/24
 Depth-First Sort Analysis
● This running time argument is an informal
example of amortized analysis
■ “Charge” the exploration of edge to the edge:
○ Each loop in DFS_Visit can be attributed to an edge in the
graph
○ Runs once/edge if directed graph, twice if undirected
○ Thus loop will run in O(E) time, algorithm O(V+E)
 Considered linear for graph, b/c adj list requires O(V+E) storage
■ Important to be comfortable with this kind of
reasoning and analysis

David Luebke 32
11/23/24
 DFS Example
source
vertex

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 DFS Example
source
vertex
d f
1 | | |

| |

| | |

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 DFS Example
source
vertex
d f
1 | | |

2 | |

| | |

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 DFS Example
source
vertex
d f
1 | | |

2 | |

3 | | |

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 DFS Example
source
vertex
d f
1 | | |

2 | |

3 | 4 | |

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 DFS Example
source
vertex
d f
1 | | |

2 | |

3 | 4 5 | |

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 DFS Example
source
vertex
d f
1 | | |

2 | |

3 | 4 5 | 6 |

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 DFS Example
source
vertex
d f
1 | 8 | |

2 | 7 |

3 | 4 5 | 6 |

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 DFS Example
source
vertex
d f
1 | 8 | |

2 | 7 |

3 | 4 5 | 6 |

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 DFS Example
source
vertex
d f
1 | 8 | |

2 | 7 9 |

3 | 4 5 | 6 |

What is the structure of the grey vertices?

What do they represent?
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 DFS Example
source
vertex
d f
1 | 8 | |

2 | 7 9 |10

3 | 4 5 | 6 |

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 DFS Example
source
vertex
d f
1 | 8 |11 |

2 | 7 9 |10

3 | 4 5 | 6 |

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 DFS Example
source
vertex
d f
1 |12 8 |11 |

2 | 7 9 |10

3 | 4 5 | 6 |

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 DFS Example
source
vertex
d f
1 |12 8 |11 13|

2 | 7 9 |10

3 | 4 5 | 6 |

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 DFS Example
source
vertex
d f
1 |12 8 |11 13|

2 | 7 9 |10

3 | 4 5 | 6 14|

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 DFS Example
source
vertex
d f
1 |12 8 |11 13|

2 | 7 9 |10

3 | 4 5 | 6 14|15

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 DFS Example
source
vertex
d f
1 |12 8 |11 13|16

2 | 7 9 |10

3 | 4 5 | 6 14|15

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 DFS: Kinds of edges
● DFS introduces an important distinction
among edges in the original graph:
■ Tree edge: encounter new (white) vertex
○ The tree edges form a spanning forest
○ Can tree edges form cycles? Why or why not?

David Luebke 50
11/23/24
 DFS Example
source
vertex
d f
1 |12 8 |11 13|16

2 | 7 9 |10

3 | 4 5 | 6 14|15

Tree edges
David Luebke 51
11/23/24
 DFS: Kinds of edges
● DFS introduces an important distinction
among edges in the original graph:
■ Tree edge: encounter new (white) vertex
■ Back edge: from descendent to ancestor
○ Encounter a grey vertex (grey to grey)

David Luebke 52
11/23/24
 DFS Example
source
vertex
d f
1 |12 8 |11 13|16

2 | 7 9 |10

3 | 4 5 | 6 14|15

Tree edges Back edges

David Luebke 53
11/23/24
 DFS: Kinds of edges
● DFS introduces an important distinction
among edges in the original graph:
■ Tree edge: encounter new (white) vertex
■ Back edge: from descendent to ancestor
■ Forward edge: from ancestor to descendent
○ Not a tree edge, though
○ From grey node to black node

David Luebke 54
11/23/24
 DFS Example
source
vertex
d f
1 |12 8 |11 13|16

2 | 7 9 |10

3 | 4 5 | 6 14|15

Tree edges Back edges Forward edges

David Luebke 55
11/23/24
 DFS: Kinds of edges
● DFS introduces an important distinction
among edges in the original graph:
■ Tree edge: encounter new (white) vertex
■ Back edge: from descendent to ancestor
■ Forward edge: from ancestor to descendent
■ Cross edge: between a tree or subtrees
○ From a grey node to a black node

David Luebke 56
11/23/24
 DFS Example
source
vertex
d f
1 |12 8 |11 13|16

2 | 7 9 |10

3 | 4 5 | 6 14|15

Tree edges Back edges Forward edges Cross edges

David Luebke 57
11/23/24
 DFS: Kinds of edges
● DFS introduces an important distinction
among edges in the original graph:
■ Tree edge: encounter new (white) vertex
■ Back edge: from descendent to ancestor
■ Forward edge: from ancestor to descendent
■ Cross edge: between a tree or subtrees
● Note: tree & back edges are important; most
algorithms don’t distinguish forward & cross

David Luebke 58
11/23/24
 DFS: Kinds Of Edges
● Thm 23.9: If G is undirected, a DFS produces
only tree and back edges
● Proof by contradiction:
source
■ Assume there’s a forward edge F?
○ But F? edge must actually be a
back edge (why?)

David Luebke 59
11/23/24
 DFS: Kinds Of Edges
● Thm 23.9: If G is undirected, a DFS produces only
tree and back edges
● Proof by contradiction:
source
■ Assume there’s a cross edge
○ But C? edge cannot be cross:
○ must be explored from one of the
vertices it connects, becoming a tree
vertex, before other vertex is explored
○ So in fact the picture is wrong…both
lower tree edges cannot in fact be
tree edges
C?

David Luebke 60
11/23/24
 DFS And Graph Cycles
● Thm: An undirected graph is acyclic iff a DFS
yields no back edges
■ If acyclic, no back edges (because a back edge implies a
cycle
■ If no back edges, acyclic
○ No back edges implies only tree edges (Why?)
○ Only tree edges implies we have a tree or a forest
○ Which by definition is acyclic

● Thus, can run DFS to find whether a graph has a

cycle

David Luebke 61
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 DFS And Cycles
● How would you modify the code to detect cycles?
DFS(G) DFS_Visit(u)
{ {
for each vertex u  G->V u->color = GREY;
time = time+1;
{
u->d = time;
u->color = WHITE;
for each v  u->Adj[]
}
{
time = 0;
if (v->color == WHITE)
for each vertex u  G->V
DFS_Visit(v);
{
}
if (u->color == WHITE)
u->color = BLACK;
DFS_Visit(u);
time = time+1;
}
u->f = time;
}
}
David Luebke 62
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 DFS And Cycles
● What will be the running time?
DFS(G) DFS_Visit(u)
{ {
for each vertex u  G->V u->color = GREY;
time = time+1;
{
u->d = time;
u->color = WHITE;
for each v  u->Adj[]
}
{
time = 0;
if (v->color == WHITE)
for each vertex u  G->V
DFS_Visit(v);
{
}
if (u->color == WHITE)
u->color = BLACK;
DFS_Visit(u);
time = time+1;
}
u->f = time;
}
}
David Luebke 63
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 DFS And Cycles
● What will be the running time?
● A: O(V+E)
● We can actually determine if cycles exist in
O(V) time:
■ In an undirected acyclic forest, |E|  |V| - 1
■ So count the edges: if ever see |V| distinct edges,
must have seen a back edge along the way

David Luebke 64
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