Course Lecturer:

Zahraddeen Sufyanu
([email protected])

Department of Computer Science, FUD -

2021/2022
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.1 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Course Grading
 CA: 40%

-Test 1 (week 5): 15%

-Test 2 (week 11) : 15%
Practical Assessment: 10%

 Exam: 60%

-Mode: Essay style & Objectives

Starting Date of Lectures: 3rd February 2020

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.2 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Chapter 1: Introduction

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edit9on Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Chapter 1: Introduction
 What Operating Systems Do
 Computer-System Organization
 Computer-System Architecture
 Operating-System Structure
 Operating-System Operations
 Process Management
 Memory Management
 Storage Management
 Protection and Security
 Kernel Data Structures
 Computing Environments
 Open-Source Operating Systems

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.4 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Objectives

 To describe the basic organization of computer systems

 To provide a grand tour of the major components of
operating systems
 To give an overview of the many types of computing
environments
 To explore several open-source operating systems

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.5 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 What is an Operating System?

 A program that acts as an intermediary between a user of a

computer and the computer hardware
 Operating system goals:
 Execute user programs and solve user problems easier
 Make the computer system convenient to use
 Use the computer hardware in an efficient manner

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.6 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Computer System Structure
 Computer system can be divided into four components:
 Hardware – provides basic computing resources
 CPU, memory, I/O devices
 Operating system
 Controls and coordinates use of hardware among various
applications and users
 Application programs – define the ways in which the system
resources are used to solve the computing problems of the
users
 Word processors, compilers, web browsers, database
systems, video games
 Users
 People, machines, other computers

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.7 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Four Components of a Computer System

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.8 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 What Operating Systems Do

 Depends on the point of view

 Users want convenience, ease of use and good performance
 Don’t care about resource utilization
 But keep all users happy
 Users of dedicate systems such as workstations have dedicated
resources but frequently use shared resources from servers
 Handheld computers are resource poor, optimized for usability
and battery life

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.9 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Operating System Definition

 OS is a resource allocator
 Manages all resources
 Decides between conflicting requests for efficient and
fair resource use
 OS is a control program
 Controls execution of programs to prevent errors and
improper use of the computer

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.10 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Operating System Definition (Cont.)

 No universally accepted definition

 “Everything a vendor ships when you order an operating
system” is a good approximation, but varies
 “The one program running at all times on the computer” is the
kernel.
 Everything else is either
 a system program (ships with the operating system) , or
 an application program.

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.11 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Computer Startup

 bootstrap program is loaded at power-up or reboot

 Typically stored in ROM or EPROM, generally known
as firmware
 Initializes all aspects of system
 Loads operating system kernel and starts execution

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.12 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Computer System Organization
 Computer-system operation
 One or more CPUs, device controllers connect through common
bus providing access to shared memory
 Concurrent execution of CPUs and devices competing for
memory cycles

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.13 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Computer-System Operation

 I/O devices and the CPU can execute concurrently

 Each device controller is in charge of a particular device type
 Each device controller has a local buffer
 CPU moves data from/to main memory to/from local buffers
 I/O is from the device to local buffer of controller
 Device controller informs CPU that it has finished its
operation by causing an interrupt

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.14 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Common Functions of Interrupts

 Interrupt architecture must save the address of the

interrupted instruction
 A trap or exception is a software-generated interrupt
caused either by an error or a user request
 An operating system is interrupt driven

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.15 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Interrupt Handling

 The operating system preserves the state of the CPU by

storing registers and the program counter
 Determines which type of interrupt has occurred:
 Polling—technique that interrogates a peripheral device
if it has data to transfer
 vectored interrupt system—jumped during execution of
a program

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.16 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Storage Structure
 Main memory – only large storage media that the CPU can access
directly
 Random access
 Typically volatile
 Secondary storage – extension of main memory that provides large
nonvolatile storage capacity
 Hard disks – rigid metal or glass platters covered with magnetic
recording material
 Disk surface is logically divided into tracks, which are subdivided into
sectors
 The disk controller determines the logical interaction between the device
and the computer
 Solid-state disks – faster than hard disks, nonvolatile
 Various technologies
 Becoming more popular

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.17 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Storage Hierarchy

 Storage systems organized in hierarchy

 Speed
 Cost
 Volatility
 Caching – copying information into faster storage system;
main memory can be viewed as a cache for secondary
storage
 Device Driver for each device controller to manage I/O
 Provides uniform interface between controller and
kernel

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.18 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Storage-Device Hierarchy

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.19 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Caching

 Important principle, performed at many levels in a computer

(in hardware, operating system, software)
 Information in use copied from slower to faster storage
temporarily
 Faster storage (cache) checked first to determine if
information is there
 If it is, information used directly from the cache (fast)
 If not, data copied to cache and used there
 Cache smaller than storage being cached
 Cache management important design problem
 Cache size and replacement policy

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.20 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Direct Memory Access Structure

 Used for high-speed I/O devices able to transmit

information at close to memory speeds
 Device controller transfers blocks of data from buffer
storage directly to main memory without CPU
intervention
 Only one interrupt is generated per block, rather than
the one interrupt per byte

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.21 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 How a Modern Computer Works

A von Neumann architecture

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.22 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Computer-System Architecture

 Most systems use a single general-purpose processor

 Most systems have special-purpose processors as well
 Multiprocessors systems growing in use and importance
 Also known as parallel systems, tightly-coupled systems
 Advantages include:
1. Increased throughput
2. Economy of scale
3. Increased reliability –fault tolerance
 Two types:
1. Asymmetric Multiprocessing – each processor is assigned a
specie task.
2. Symmetric Multiprocessing – each processor performs all tasks

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.23 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Symmetric Multiprocessing Architecture

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.24 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 A Dual-Core Design
 Multi-chip and multicore
 Systems containing all chips
 Chassis containing multiple separate systems

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.25 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Clustered Systems

 Like multiprocessor systems, but multiple systems working together

 Usually sharing storage via a storage-area network (SAN)
 Provides a high-availability service which survives failures
 Asymmetric clustering has one machine in hot-standby mode
 Symmetric clustering has multiple nodes running applications,
monitoring each other
 Some clusters are for high-performance computing (HPC)
 Some have distributed lock manager (DLM) to avoid conflicting
operations

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.26 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Clustered Systems

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.27 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Operating System Structure
 Multiprogramming (Batch system) needed for efficiency
 Single user cannot keep CPU and I/O devices busy at all times
 Multiprogramming organizes jobs (code and data) so CPU always has one to
execute
 A subset of total jobs in system is kept in memory
 One job selected and run via job scheduling
 When it has to wait (for I/O for example), OS switches to another job

 Timesharing (multitasking) is logical extension in which CPU switches jobs

so frequently that users can interact with each job while it is running, creating
interactive computing
 Response time should be < 1 second
 Each user has at least one program executing in memory process
 If several jobs ready to run at the same time  CPU scheduling
 If processes don’t fit in memory, swapping moves them in and out to run
 Virtual memory allows execution of processes not completely in memory

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.28 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Memory Layout for Multiprogrammed System

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.29 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Operating-System Operations
 Interrupt driven (hardware and software)
 Hardware interrupt by one of the devices
 Software interrupt (exception or trap):
 Software error (e.g., division by zero)
 Request for operating system service
 Other process problems include infinite loop

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.30 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Operating-System Operations (cont.)
 Dual-mode operation allows OS to protect itself and other system
components
 User mode and kernel mode
 Mode bit provided by hardware
 Provides ability to distinguish when system is running user
code or kernel code
 Some instructions designated as privileged, only
executable in kernel mode
 System call changes mode to kernel, return from call resets
it to user

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.31 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Transition from User to Kernel Mode
 Timer to prevent infinite loop
 Timer is set to interrupt the computer after some time period
 Keep a counter that is decremented by the physical clock.
 Operating system set the counter (privileged instruction)
 When counter zero generate an interrupt
 Set up before scheduling process to regain control or terminate
program that exceeds allotted time

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.32 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Process Management
 A process is a program in execution. It is a unit of work within the
system. Program is a passive entity, process is an active entity.
 Process needs resources to accomplish its task
 CPU, memory, I/O, files
 Process termination requires reclaim of any reusable resources
 Single-threaded process has one program counter specifying
location of next instruction to execute
 Process executes instructions sequentially, one at a time,
until completion
 Multi-threaded process has one program counter per thread
 Typically system has many processes, operating system running
concurrently on one or more CPUs

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.33 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Process Management Activities

The operating system is responsible for the following activities in

connection with process management:
 Creating and deleting both user and system processes
 Suspending and resuming processes
 Providing mechanisms for process synchronization
 Providing mechanisms for process communication
 Providing mechanisms for deadlock handling

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.34 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Memory Management

 To execute a program all (or part) of the instructions must be in

memory
 All (or part) of the data that is needed by the program must be in
memory.
 Memory management determines what is in memory, this
optimizes CPU utilization and computer response to users
 Memory management activities
 Keeping track of which parts of memory are currently being
used and by whom
 Deciding which processes and data to move into and out of
memory
 Allocating and deallocating memory space as needed

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.35 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Storage Management
 OS provides logical view of information storage
 Each medium is controlled by device (i.e., disk drive, tape drive)
 Varying properties include access speed, capacity, data-
transfer rate, access method (sequential or random)

 File-System management
 Files usually organized into directories
 OS activities include
 Creating, deleting files, and manipulating files and directories
 Mapping files onto secondary storage
 Backup files onto stable (non-volatile) storage media

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.36 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Mass-Storage Management
 Usually disks used to store data that does not fit in main memory or
data that must be kept for a “long” period of time
 Proper management is of central importance--- OS
 OS activities
 Free-space management
 Storage allocation
 Disk scheduling
 Some storage need not be fast
 Tertiary storage includes optical storage, magnetic tape
 Still must be managed – by OS or applications

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.37 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Performance of Various Levels of Storage

Movement between levels of storage hierarchy can be explicit or implicit

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.38 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Migration of data “A” from Disk to Register

Multiprocessor environment must provide cache coherency in

hardware such that all CPUs have the most recent value in their cache

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.39 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Protection and Security
 Protection – any mechanism for controlling access of processes or
users to resources defined by the OS
 Security – defense of the system against internal and external attacks
 viruses, identity theft, theft of service
 Systems generally first distinguish among users, to determine who
can do what
 User identities (user IDs, security IDs) include name and
associated number, one per user
 User ID then associated with all files, processes of that user to
determine access control
 Group identifier (group ID) allows set of users to be defined and
controls managed, then also associated with each process, file
 Privilege escalation allows user to change to effective ID with
more rights

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.40 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Computing Environments - Traditional

 Stand-alone general purpose machines

 But blurred as most systems interconnect with others (i.e.,
the Internet)
 Portals provide web access to internal systems
 Network computers (thin clients) are like Web terminals
 Mobile computers interconnect via wireless networks
 Networking becoming ubiquitous – even home systems use
firewalls to protect home computers from Internet attacks

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.41 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Computing Environments - Mobile

 Handheld smartphones, tablets, etc

 What is the functional difference between them and a
“traditional” laptop?
 Extra feature – more OS features (like GPS)
 Allows new types of apps
 Use IEEE 802.11 wireless, or cellular data networks for
connectivity
 Leaders are Apple iOS and Google Android

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.42 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Computing Environments – Distributed

 Distributed computiing
 Collection of separate, possibly heterogeneous, systems
networked together
 Network is a communications path, TCP/IP most common
– Local Area Network (LAN)
– Wide Area Network (WAN)
– Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
– Personal Area Network (PAN)
 Network Operating System provides features between
systems across network
 Communication scheme allows systems to exchange
messages

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.43 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Computing Environments – Client-Server

 Client-Server Computing
 Dumb terminals supplanted by smart PCs
 Many systems now servers, responding to requests generated
by clients
 Compute-server system provides an interface to client to
request services (i.e., database)
 File-server system provides interface for clients to store
and retrieve files

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.44 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Computing Environments – Cloud Computing

 Delivers computing, storage, even apps as a service across a network

 Logical extension of virtualization because it uses virtualization as the base
for it functionality.
 Amazon EC2 has thousands of servers, millions of virtual machines,
petabytes of storage available across the Internet, pay based on usage
 Many types
 Public cloud – available via Internet to anyone willing to pay
 Private cloud – run by a company for the company’s own use
 Hybrid cloud – includes both public and private cloud components
 Software as a Service (SaaS) – one or more applications available via
the Internet (i.e., word processor)
 Platform as a Service (PaaS) – software stack ready for application use
via the Internet (i.e., a database server)
 Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS) – servers or storage available over
Internet (i.e., storage available for backup use)

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.45 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Computing Environments – Cloud Computing

 Cloud computing environments composed of traditional OSes,

plus VMMs, plus cloud management tools
 Internet connectivity requires security like firewalls
 Load balancers spread traffic across multiple applications

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.46 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Open-Source Operating Systems

 Operating systems made available in source-code format

 Started by Free Software Foundation (FSF), which has “copyleft
”
 Examples include GNU/Linux and BSD UNIX (including core of
Mac OS X), and many more
 (open source and free on many platforms -
http://www.virtualbox.com)

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.47 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 End of Chapter 1

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edit9on Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013