U21EEX04

HOME AUTOMATION

UNIT - I

TYPES OF SENSORS

Nov 19, 2024 1

 U21EEX04 - HOME AUTOMATION
UNIT I – TYPES OF SENSORS
Construction, working principle and application: Infrared motion sensor, LDR sensor,
ultrasonic sensor, temperature sensor, oxygen sensor, gas sensor, rain sensor and touch
sensor
UNIT II – CONTROLLERS AND RELAY
Arduino Uno, Node MCU and Raspberry Pi controller: Construction, pin details, board
descriptions and applications - Construction and working principle of relay.
UNIT III – COMMUNICATION PROTOCOLS AND IOT
Importance of protocols - Inter and intra system protocols - HTTP protocol - Bluetooth -
Wireless Fidelity (WiFi)-Basics of Internet of Things (IoT)-loT architecture
UNIT IV – ARDUINO PROGRAMMING
Basics of Arduino software - Arduino coding: Code structure, data types, statement
operators, control statements, looping statements, input/output control and sample
coding for lamp and motion control-Basics of Tinker cad simulation

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 U21EEX04 - HOME AUTOMATION
UNIT V – APPLICATIONS
Interfacing of sensors with controller - Fire alarm system - Gas leakage detection system
- Burglar alarm system-Arduino Uno and Node MCU: Lamp, motion and temperature
control using Bluetooth and WIFI
TEXT BOOKS:
1. Halit Eren, John G. Webster, "Measurement, Instrumentation, and Sensors Handbook", 2nd edition, CRC Press, 2017
2. Simon Monk, "Programming Arduino Getting Started with Sketches", 2 nd edition, McGraw-Hill Education, 2011
3. Dr. Umesh Dutta, Nilansh Khurana, Devdutt, "The Internet of Things Using NODEMCU", 1st edition, Blue Rose
Publishers, 2021
REFERENCES:
1. Volker Ziemann, "A Hands-On Course in Sensors Using the Arduino and Raspberry Pi, 1st edition, CRC Press, 2018
2. Donald Norris, "The Internet of Things: Do-It-Yourself Projects with Arduino, Raspberry Pi, and Beagle Bone Black",
1st edition, McGraw-Hill Education, 2015
3. Simon Monk, "Arduino + Android Projects for the Evil Genius", 1st edition, McGraw-Hill Tab Electronics, 2011

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 U21EEX04 - HOME AUTOMATION
UNIT I – TYPES OF SENSORS
Construction, working principle and application: Infrared motion sensor, LDR
sensor, ultrasonic sensor, temperature sensor, oxygen sensor, gas sensor, rain
sensor and touch sensor

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 CLASSIFICATION OF SENSORS
Classification of Sensors

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 INFRARED MOTION SENSOR
 Security is the first and foremost requirement of everyone’s life.
 Passive Infrared Sensor (PIR) to sense the infrared emitted by a body or object.
 PIR sensor detects the body heat of a person or object when it comes in close proximity. Whenever
the sensor senses an object or body, it gives high at the output pin of the sensor. Through which we
can control a LED, Buzzer or any home appliance.
 There are three IR regions on spectrum named as near-infrared (0.75-3mm), mid-infrared (3-6mm),
and far infrared (higher than 6mm). The infrared region of PIR sensor is from 0.75mm to 1000mm. PIR
sensors module comes with three pins for interfacing with any microcontroller.
 One is a signal pin, second is for Ground and the third one is for power supply.

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 INFRARED MOTION SENSOR
 PIR sensor can detect animal/human movement in a requirement range. PIR is made of a pyroelectric
sensor, which is able to detect different levels of infrared radiation. The detector itself does not emit
any energy but passively receives it.
 PIR sensor doesn’t emit infrared signal by itself in fact, it detects infrared radiation coming from the
body or object in its surrounding area. The output of the PIR sensor goes high when it detects
infrared rays in its range.
Construction of PIR Sensor
 There are mainly two important parts present in the PIR sensor module.
 The first one is the pyroelectric crystal and the second one is Fresnel lenses. The pyroelectric
sensor detects the heat from an object or body and Fresnel lens widens the range of the
sensor.

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 INFRARED MOTION SENSOR
Working Principle
 Once there is infrared radiation from the human body particle with temperature, focusing on the
optical system causes the pyroelectric device to generate a sudden electrical signal.
 Simply, when a human body or any animal passes by, then it intercepts the first slot of the PIR sensor.
This causes a positive differential change between the two bisects. When a human body leaves the
sensing area, the sensor generates a negative differential change between the two bisects.
 The passive infrared sensor does not radiate
energy to space. It receives the infrared radiation
from the human body to make an alarm. Any object
with temperature is constantly radiating infrared
rays to the outside world. The surface temperature
of the human body is between 36° C - 27 ° C and
most of its radiant energy concentrated in the
wavelength range of 8 mm-12 mm.

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 INFRARED MOTION SENSOR
 The most widely used infrared detector is a pyroelectric detector. It uses as a sensor for converting
human infrared radiation into electricity. If the human infrared radiation is directly irradiated on the
detector, it will, of course, cause a temperature change to output a signal.
 Usually, plastic optical reflection system or plastic Fresnel lens used as a focusing system for infrared
radiation.
 The lens of the detector receives the infrared
radiation energy of the human body through the
clothing and focused on the pyroelectric sensor.
When the human body moves in this surveillance
mode, it enters a certain field of view in sequence
and then walks out of the field of view.

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 INFRARED MOTION SENSOR
Modes of Operation
 There are mainly two operating modes of PIR sensor “Repeating mode” and “Non-repeating” mode.
 Repeating Mode
 In this mode, the output pin will go high once the motion is detected and goes low after a preset time.
Means the output will remain high even the person or object left the PIR range of detection. This
preset timing and sensitivity can be controlled by the potentiometer present on-board.
 Non-Repeating Mode
 In this mode, the output will go high as soon as the motion is detected in the range of PIR sensor. And,
as soon as the object goes out of the sensing range, the output will again go to low. In both the
operating modes, the sensitivity can be controlled using the “sensitivity control” potentiometer
present on the board.

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 INFRARED MOTION SENSOR
 The detected radiations are converted into an electrical charge, which is proportional to the detected
level of the radiation. Then this charge is further improved by a built in FET and fed to the output pin
of the device which becomes applicable to an external circuit for further triggering and amplification
of the alarm stages. The PIR sensor range is up to 10 meters at an angle of +15° or -15 °.

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 INFRARED MOTION SENSOR
Applications
 Automatic door opening system
 Security alarm system
 Human detection robot
 Security cameras to detect motion
 Industrial automation control
 Stepper motor control
 Apartments and schools for detecting motion
 Real-time monitoring including physical health, electronic security systems, etc.

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 INFRARED MOTION SENSOR
Program for Arduino
int sensor = 8; //pin 8 connected to a sensor signal
void setup(){
Serial.begin(9600); //initialisation of a serial monitor
pinMode(sensor, INPUT); // setting the Arduino pin as input
Serial.println(“—- TEST SENSOR MOVEMENT TEST —-“);
}
void loop(){
int motion = digitalRead (sensor); //reading the value from the sensor
if(movement === HIGH) // displaying information on a serial monitor
{ // high state means motion detection, low state means no motion
Serial.println(“MOVE CHARACTERS!”);
}
else {Serial.println(“no traffic”);}
delay(200); // delay between readings
}

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 INFRARED MOTION SENSOR
Program for Arduino
//Defining pins
int buzz = 9; int pir = 2;
void setup()
{
// Sets the buzzer as an OUTPUT & PIR sensor as an INPUT
pinMode(buzz, OUTPUT);
pinMode(pir, INPUT);
// Serial Communication is starting with 9600 of baudrate speed
Serial.begin(9600);
}

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 INFRARED MOTION SENSOR
void loop()
{
int status = digitalRead(pir); //Read data from the sensor
// check data from sensor if there is motion, if will execute otherwise else will execute
if(status == HIGH)
{
Serial.println("Motion Detected");
tone(buzz,1000,700);
delay(2000);
}
else
{
Serial.println("No one is there");
delay(1000);
}
}

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 LDR SENSOR
 A photoresistor (or light-dependent resistor (LDR), or photo-conductive cell) is a light-
controlled variable resistor.
 The resistance of a photoresistor decreases with increasing incident light intensity; in other words, it
exhibits photoconductivity.
 A photoresistor can be applied in light-sensitive detector circuits, and light-activated and dark-
activated switching circuits.
 A photoresistor is made of a high resistance semiconductor. In the dark, a photoresistor can
have a resistance as high as several megohms (MΩ), while in the light, a photoresistor can have
a resistance as low as a few hundred ohms.

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 LDR SENSOR
 If incident light on a photoresistor exceeds a certain frequency, photons absorbed by the
semiconductor give bound electrons enough energy to jump into the conduction band.
 The resulting free electrons (and their hole partners) conduct electricity, thereby lowering
resistance. The resistance range and sensitivity of a photoresistor can substantially differ among
dissimilar devices.
 Moreover, unique photoresistors may react substantially differently to photons within certain
wavelength bands.
 A photoelectric device can be either intrinsic or extrinsic.
 An intrinsic semiconductor has its own charge carriers and is not an efficient semiconductor, for
example, silicon.
 In intrinsic devices the only available electrons are in the valence band, and hence the photon must
have enough energy to excite the electron across the entire bandgap.
 Materials used as the semiconductor substrate include, lead sulphide (PbS), lead selenide (PbSe),
indium antimonide (InSb) which detect light in the infra-red range with the most commonly used
of all photoresistive light sensors being Cadmium Sulphide (Cds).

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 LDR SENSOR
Working Principle
 Photoresistors work based off of the principle of photoconductivity. Photoconductivity is an
optical phenomenon in which the material’s conductivity is increased when light is absorbed
by the material.
 When light falls i.e. when the photons fall on the device, the electrons in the valence band of the
semiconductor material are excited to the conduction band.
 These photons in the incident light should have energy greater than the bandgap of the
semiconductor material to make the electrons jump from the valence band to the conduction band.
 Hence when light having enough energy strikes on the device, more and more electrons are excited
to the conduction band which results in a large number of charge carriers.
 The result of this process is more and more current starts flowing through the device when the
circuit is closed and hence it is said that the resistance of the device has been decreased.

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 LDR SENSOR
Working Principle

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 LDR SENSOR
Advantages of LDR
 LDRs are very low-cost devices.
 LDRs are very smaller in sizes.
 LDR is a very simple device.
 The connection of LDR is also very simple.
Disadvantage of LDR
 LDR is not so much sensitive device.
 LDR gives inaccurate result if working temperature changes.

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 LDR SENSOR
Applications of LDR
 Alarm clocks
 Street lights
 Light intensity meters
 Burglar alarm circuits
 Photographic light meters
 Solar cells
 Automatic lighting systems
 Electronic musical instruments, where they can be used to control the pitch or volume of the sound
 Counting objects in conveyor belts
 Cameras

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 LDR SENSOR
Simulation

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 ULTRASONIC SENSOR
 Active ones generate ultrasonic wave (sound wave) pulses and then determine the reflection of these
waves off a moving object.
 An ultrasonic sensor is an instrument that measures the distance to an object using ultrasonic sound
waves.
 An ultrasonic sensor uses a transducer to send and receive ultrasonic pulses that relay back
information about an object’s proximity.
 High-frequency sound waves reflect from boundaries to produce distinct echo patterns.
 Ultrasonic sound vibrates at a frequency above the range of human hearing.
 Transducers are the microphones used to receive and send the ultrasonic sound.
 Ultrasonic sensors, like many others, use a single transducer to send a pulse and to receive the echo.
The sensor determines the distance to a target by measuring time lapses between the sending and
receiving of the ultrasonic pulse.

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 ULTRASONIC SENSOR
Ultrasonic Principle
 Ultrasonic sensors emit short, high-frequency sound pulses at regular intervals. These
propagate in the air at the velocity of sound.
 If they strike an object, then they are reflected back as echo signals to the sensor, which itself
computes the distance to the target based on the time-span between emitting the signal and receiving
the echo.
 As the distance to an object is determined by measuring the time of flight and not by the intensity of
the sound, ultrasonic sensors are excellent at suppressing background interference.

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 ULTRASONIC SENSOR
Working Principle
 When an electrical pulse of high voltage is applied to the ultrasonic transducer it vibrates across a
specific spectrum of frequencies and generates a burst of sound waves.
 Whenever any obstacle comes ahead of the ultrasonic sensor the sound waves will reflect back in the
form of echo and generates an electric pulse.
 It calculates the time taken between sending sound waves and receiving echo.
 The echo patterns will be compared with the patterns of sound waves to determine detected signal’s
condition.
 The distance can be calculated with the following formula: Distance L = 1/2 × (T × C)
where L is the distance, T is the time between the emission and reception, and C is the sonic speed.
(The value is multiplied by 1/2 because T is the time for go-and-return distance.)

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 ULTRASONIC SENSOR
Applications
 Proximity detection
 Obstacle detection
 Ranging/Distance measurement and liquid level sensing
 Anti-collision system
 Presence detection
 Robotic sensing for positioning of robotic arms
 Noticing the filling level of objects on a conveyor belt
 Detection of objects and burglar alarms
 Measurement of direction and speed
 Medical applications
 Sonar and humidifiers
 Wireless charging
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 TEMPERATURE SENSOR
Classifications
Temperature sensor can be classified as
 Thermostat - Bi-metallic Thermostat
 Thermistor
 Resistive Temperature Detectors (RTD)
 Thermocouple
 IC Temperature Sensor

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 TEMPERATURE SENSOR
Thermostat
 Thermostat is a contact type electro-mechanical temperature sensor or switch, that basically consists
of two different metals such as nickel, copper, tungsten or aluminium etc, that are bonded
together to form a Bi-metallic strip.
 The different linear expansion rates of the two dissimilar metals produces a mechanical bending
movement when the strip is subjected to heat.
 The bi-metallic strip can be used itself as an electrical switch or as a mechanical way of operating an
electrical switch in thermostatic controls.
 They are used extensively to control hot water heating elements in boilers, furnaces, hot water
storage tanks as well as in vehicle radiator cooling systems.

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 TEMPERATURE SENSOR
Bi-metallic Thermostat
 The thermostat consists of two thermally different metals stuck together back to back. When it is cold
the contacts are closed and current passes through the thermostat. When it gets hot, one metal
expands more than the other and the bonded bi-metallic strip bends up (or down) opening the
contacts preventing the current from flowing.

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 TEMPERATURE SENSOR
Thermistor
 Thermistor is type of temperature sensor, THERM-ally sensitive res-ISTOR.
 A thermistor is a special type of resistor which changes its physical resistance when exposed to
changes in temperature.
 These are made of ceramic materials such as oxides of nickel, manganese or cobalt coated in
glass. The main advantages are speed of response to any changes in temperature, accuracy and
repeatability.
 Most types of thermistor’s have a Negative Temperature Coefficient of resistance or (NTC), that is
their resistance value goes DOWN with an increase in the temperature.
 Thermistors are passive resistive devices which means need to pass a current through it to produce
a measurable voltage output.
 Thermistors are generally connected in series with a suitable biasing resistor to form a potential
divider network and the choice of resistor gives a voltage output at some pre-determined
temperature point or value

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 TEMPERATURE SENSOR
Thermistor

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 TEMPERATURE SENSOR
Resistive Temperature Detectors (RTD)
 RTD’s are precision temperature sensors made from high-purity conducting metals such as
platinum, copper or nickel wound into a coil and whose electrical resistance changes as a
function of temperature, similar to that of the thermistor.
 Also available are thin-film RTD’s. These devices have a thin film of platinum paste is deposited
onto a white ceramic substrate.
 Resistive temperature detectors have positive temperature coefficients (PTC) but unlike the
thermistor their output is extremely linear producing very accurate measurements of temperature.
 However, they have very poor thermal sensitivity, that is a change in temperature only produces a
very small output change for example, 1Ω/°C.

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 TEMPERATURE SENSOR
Resistive Temperature Detectors (RTD)
 Any variation in resistance due to self heat of the resistive wires as the current flows through it, I2R ,
(Ohms Law) causes an error in the readings.
 To avoid this, the RTD is usually connected into a Wheatstone Bridge network which has additional
connecting wires for lead-compensation and/or connection to a constant current source.

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 TEMPERATURE SENSOR
Thermocouple
 Thermocouples are popular due to its simplicity, ease of use and their speed of response to changes
in temperature, due mainly to their small size.
 Thermocouples also have the widest temperature range of all the temperature sensors from below
-200oC to well over 2000oC.
 Thermocouples are thermoelectric sensors that basically consists of two junctions of dissimilar
metals, such as copper and constantan that are welded or crimped together.
 One junction is kept at a constant temperature called the reference (Cold) junction, while the other
the measuring (Hot) junction.
 When the two junctions are at different temperatures, a voltage is developed across the junction
which is used to measure the temperature sensor.

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 TEMPERATURE SENSOR
Thermocouple

 When the two junctions are at different temperatures, a voltage is developed across the junction
which is used to measure the temperature sensor.

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 TEMPERATURE SENSOR
Working Principle
 The operating principal of a thermocouple is very simple and basic. When fused together the
junction of the two dissimilar metals such as copper and constantan produces a “thermo-electric”
effect which gives a constant potential difference of only a few millivolts (mV) between them.
 The voltage difference between the two junctions is called the “Seebeck effect” as a temperature
gradient is generated along the conducting wires producing an emf.
 Then the output voltage from a thermocouple is a function of the temperature changes.
 If both the junctions are at the same temperature the
potential difference across the two junctions is zero in
other words, no voltage output as V1 = V2.
 The different temperatures a voltage output will be
detected relative to the difference in temperature
between the two junctions, V1 – V2.

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 TEMPERATURE SENSOR
Advantages
 It is robust and can be used in environments like harsh as well as high vibration.
 Thermal reaction is fast
 The operating range of temperature is wide.
 Cost is low and extremely consistent
Disadvantages
 It has low-accuracy.
 The thermocouple recalibration is hard

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 TEMPERATURE SENSOR
IC TEMPERATURE SENSOR
 Semiconductor temp sensors are produced in the form of ICs.
 An IC Temperature Sensor is a two terminal integrated circuit temperature transducer that produces an
output current proportional to absolute temperature.
 The sensor package is small with a low thermal mass and a fast response time.
 The most common temperature range is 55 to 150°C (-58 to 302°F).

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 TEMPERATURE SENSOR
Advantages :
 Analog or Digital outputs available
 Low cost, simple, accurate, easy to interface
 Direct voltage, current or digital output needing no additional circuitry
 Linear output
 Direct reading of temperature (1.000 = 100C and 298µA = 298K or 25°C) on some analog devices
 Various communication interfaces
Disadvantages :
 Narrow temperature range: -55 to 150°C Max
 Wider interchangeability than most RTDs and thermistors
 Wide variation in accuracy between different models
 Small package sizes can be a barrier to low cost applications in some immersion designs

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 TEMPERATURE SENSOR
Uses of IC Sensors
 On circuit boards to monitor and control temperature.
 In computers to control CPU temperature.
 In telecommunications applications (cell phones).
 In some industrial immersion applications.

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 TEMPERATURE SENSOR
Applications
 Temperature sensors have different applications in consumer electronics, industrial, home
appliances, or commercial products. Some examples of temperature sensor applications are
 Air-conditioning and heating systems
 Microwaves
 Industrial machines
 Aircraft to measure the temperature and control the device accordingly
 Furnace monitoring and control
 Food and beverage processing
 Automotive sensors
 Rockets, satellites and spacecraft
 Medical industry, Motorsport, HVAC, Agriculture, Aerospace

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 TEMPERATURE SENSOR
Comparison of Temp Sensors

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 TEMPERATURE SENSOR
Comparison of Temp Sensors

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 OXYGEN SENSOR
Working Principle
 The oxygen sensor does not actually measure oxygen concentration, but rather the difference
between the amount of oxygen in the exhaust gas and the amount of oxygen in the air.
The working principle can be categorized in one of 3 ways:
 A chemical reaction that gives off electrons in the presence of oxygen.
 A change in light intensity given off by a fluorescing material when exposed to oxygen.
 A change in the wavelength of sound, light or in a magnetic field as oxygen passes through it.
 Each of these ways to measure oxygen has strengths and weaknesses. While oxygen sensors are
used in many applications and industries including automotive, health and medicine,
industrial, food and beverage packaging, pharmaceutical and more.

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 OXYGEN SENSOR
Types
Different types of oxygen sensors:
 Electrochemical oxygen sensor
 Zirconia oxygen sensor
 Optical oxygen sensor
 Clark oxygen sensor
 Infrared oxygen sensor (Pulse Oximeter Sensor)
 Electro galvanic sensor
 Ultrasonic oxygen sensor
 Laser oxygen sensor
 Paramagnetic oxygen sensor

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 OXYGEN SENSOR
Electrochemical Oxygen Sensor
 Primarily used to measure oxygen levels in ambient air. They measure a chemical reaction within
the sensor that creates an electrical output proportional to the oxygen level. Because
electrochemical sensors produce a current, they can be self-powered, making them useful for
measuring oxygen gas battery-operated underwater diving and hand-held personal safety devices.
Examples include breathalyzers, respiratory sensors, and blood glucose sensors.
 Advantages, low power requirements, lower detection limits, low cost and are often less directly
affected by interfering gases.
 Because of their rugged design, low cost, and self-powering, electrochemical oxygen sensors are
used in many devices, especially hand-held gas analyzers.

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 OXYGEN SENSOR
Zirconia Oxygen Sensor
 Zirconia oxygen sensors use heat and chemistry to detect oxygen. Zirconia dioxide is coated with
a thin layer of porous platinum to form a solid‐state electrochemical fuel cell. Carbon monoxide, if
present in the test gas, is oxidized by the oxygen to form CO2 which triggers a proportional flow of
current. The zirconia sensor does not directly sense O2, but rather the difference between the
concentration of oxygen in the sample gas and in fresh air.
 While zirconia oxygen sensors are most commonly used to control air-fuel ratios in cars and
trucks, they are also important in industrial applications to measure the oxygen content in flue
gases, combustion control systems, coal, oil, gas, biomass, and oxygen generation systems.
 Also known as lambda sensors, to adjust the fuel-air ratio to maximize combustion efficiency.

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 OXYGEN SENSOR
Optical Oxygen Sensor
 Optical oxygen sensors are based on the principle of fluorescence quenching by oxygen.
 They rely on the use of a light source, a light detector, and a luminescent material that reacts to light.
In many fields, luminescence‐based oxygen sensors are replacing the Clark electrode.
 The principle behind fluorescence quenching by molecular oxygen: some molecules or
compounds when exposed to light, will fluoresce (i.e. emit light energy).
 However, if oxygen molecules are present, the light energy is transferred to the oxygen molecule
resulting in less fluorescence. The amount of light energy detected is inversely proportional to
the number of oxygen molecules in the sample. Therefore, the less fluoresce detected, the more
oxygen molecules must be present in the sample gas.

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 OXYGEN SENSOR
Optical Oxygen Sensor
 The principle behind fluorescence quenching by molecular oxygen: some molecules or
compounds when exposed to light, will fluoresce (i.e. emit light energy).
 However, if oxygen molecules are present, the light energy is transferred to the oxygen molecule
resulting in less fluorescence. The amount of light energy detected is inversely proportional to
the number of oxygen molecules in the sample. Therefore, the less fluoresce detected, the more
oxygen molecules must be present in the sample gas.

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 OXYGEN SENSOR
Optical Oxygen Sensor
 In some sensors, the fluorescence is detected twice at a known time interval. Instead of measuring
the total fluorescence, the drop in luminescence (i.e. fluorescence quenching) over time is measured.
This decay-based time method allows for a simpler sensor design.
 It useful for devices like room oxygen depletion safety alarms which monitor indoor air for a
sudden drop in oxygen levels from stored compressed gases.
 Advantages: greater sensitivity, wider dynamic range, distributed configuration and multiplex
capabilities.
 Applications: medical facilities, lasers, imaging systems, and fibers.

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 OXYGEN SENSOR
Infrared Oxygen Sensor (Pulse Oximeter Sensor)
 Commonly called fingertip oximeters or finger pulse oximeters, are oxygen sensors that
measure the amount of oxygen in the blood by light.
 To work, infrared and red light are both pulsed through a thin layer of skin and measured by a photo
diode. Because the wavelengths of the 2 light sources are different, the ratio of absorption of light
through the skin is proportional to the amount of oxygenated hemoglobin in the arteries.
 Advantages are noninvasive, cost-effective, compact and easily can quickly detect low oxygen levels
in the blood.

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 OXYGEN SENSOR
Infrared Oxygen Sensor
 The oxygen content in the blood can be easily calculated by comparing how much red light (R)
is absorbed as compared to infra-red (IR) light.
 Oxygenated haemoglobin (RED line) absorbs more infrared light than red light. Also the De-
Oxygenated haemoglobin (blue line) absorbs more red light as compared to infrared light.
 Depending on the amount of Oxygenated haemoglobin or De-Oxygenated haemoglobin the ratio of
red light absorbed vs Infra-red light (R/IR) absorbed will change.

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 GAS SENSOR
 To detect the variation in the concentration of toxic gases in order to maintain the system safe and
avoid/caution any unexpected threats.
 There are various gas sensors to detect gases like oxygen, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, methane
etc.
 Used to detect the leakage of the harmful gases, monitor the air quality in industries and
offices etc.
 A gas sensor is a device which detects the presence or concentration of gases in the
atmosphere.
 Based on the concentration of the gas the sensor produces a corresponding potential difference
by changing the resistance of the material inside the sensor, which can be measured as output
voltage.
 Based on this voltage value, the type and concentration of the gas can be estimated.

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 GAS SENSOR
Types of Gas sensors
 Gas sensors are typically classified into various types based on the type of the sensing element it
is built with.
 The various types of gas sensors based on the sensing element that are generally used in various
applications.
 Metal oxide based gas sensor
 Optical gas Sensor
 Electrochemical gas sensor
 Capacitance-based gas Sensor
 Calorimetric gas sensor
 Acoustic based gas sensor

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Metal oxide based gas sensor (MQ Gas Sensor)
 MQ2 is one of the commonly used gas sensors in MQ sensor series.
 Metal Oxide Semiconductor (MOS) type gas sensor also known as Chemiresistors as the detection
is based upon change of resistance of the sensing material when the gas comes in contact with
the material. Using a simple voltage divider network, concentrations of gas can be detected.
 MQ2 Gas sensor works on 5V DC and draws around 800mW. It can detect LPG, smoke, alcohol,
propane, hydrogen, methane and carbon monoxide concentrations anywhere from 200 to 10000
ppm.

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 Internal structure of MQ2 Gas Sensor
 The sensor is actually enclosed in two layers of fine stainless steel mesh called Anti-explosion
network. It ensures that heater element inside the sensor will not cause an explosion, that are
sensing flammable gases.
 It also provides protection for the sensor and filters out suspended particles so that only gaseous
elements are able to pass inside the chamber. The mesh is bound to rest of the body via a copper
plated clamping ring.

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 The star-shaped structure is formed by the sensing element and six connecting legs that extend
beyond the Bakelite base.
 Out of six, two leads (H) are responsible for heating the sensing element and are connected through
Nickel-Chromium coil, well known conductive alloy.
 The remaining four leads (A & B) responsible for output signals are connected using Platinum Wires.
 These wires are connected to the body of the sensing element and convey small changes in the
current that passes through the sensing element.

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 The tubular sensing element is made up of Aluminum Oxide (AL2O3) based ceramic and has a coating
of Tin Dioxide (SnO2). The Tin Dioxide is the most important material being sensitive towards
combustible gases.
 However, the ceramic substrate merely increases heating efficiency and ensures the sensor area is
heated to a working temperature constantly.

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Working Principle
 When tin dioxide (semiconductor particles) is heated in air at high temperature, oxygen is adsorbed
on the surface.
 In clean air, donor electrons in tin dioxide are attracted toward oxygen which is adsorbed on
the surface of the sensing material. This prevents electric current flow.
 In the presence of reducing gases, the surface density of adsorbed oxygen decreases as it reacts with
the reducing gases.
 Electrons are then released into the tin dioxide, allowing current to flow freely through the sensor.

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Working Principle
 When the sensor is placed in the toxic or combustible gases environment, this reducing gas (orange
color) reacts with the adsorbed oxygen particles and breaks the chemical bond between oxygen and
free electrons thus releasing the free electrons.
 As the free electrons are back to its initial position they can now conduct current, this conduction
will be proportional the amount of free electrons available in SnO2, if the gas is highly toxic more free
electrons will be available.

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Applications
 Industries to monitor the concentration of the toxic gases.
 Households to detect an emergency incidents.
 Oil rig locations to monitor the concentration of the gases those are released.
 Hotels to avoid customers from smoking.
 Air quality check at offices.
 Air conditioners to monitor the CO2 levels.
 Detecting fire.
 Check concentration of gases in mines.
 Breath analyzer.

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 RAIN SENSOR
 Rain sensor which is used to detect the rain and generate an alarm. So, can conserve water to use it
later for different purposes.
 The sensor which activates automatically during the rainfall is known as a rain sensor.
 When the rain falls then the sensor acts as a switching device and the sensor gets activated. The rain
sensor is particularly used in irrigation systems.
 The water conservative device connected to an automatic irrigation system, when rain falls the
system gets switched off. It gets automatically controlled according to the amount of rainfall.
 The weather is unpredictable, suddenly starts raining by changing clouds. It is used to detect the rain
and an alarm is generated and the necessary action is taken further.

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Working Principle
 A rain sensor (often mounted behind the review mirror) detects moisture by reflecting an infrared
beam of light off the outside surface of windshield surface to an infrared sensor array.
 When rain, snow or sleet contacts the windshield, the rain sensor experiences an interruption to
the infrared beam. Both, analog and digital signal processing determines the intensity of rain, sleet
or snow.
 Sensor then communicates with the windshield control module to trigger the signal according to the
level of rain, sleet or snow detected.

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Working Principle

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Working Principle

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 RAIN SENSOR
Advantages
 Simple operating principle
 It operates with less power
 The cost of a sensor is less
 Rain sensor-based systems installation is very simple
Applications
 Automatic wiper controls in vehicle system
 Water preservation device and this is connected to the irrigation system to shut down the system in
the event of rainfall.
 Guard the internal parts of an automobile against the rainfall as well as to support the regular
windscreen wiper’s mode.

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 TOUCH SENSOR
 A tactile sensor is a device that measures information arising from physical interaction with
its.
 The sense of touch in humans is generally modeled. It has a capability of detecting the stimuli
resulting from the mechanical simulation, pain, and temperature.
 What does it sense : Deformation of bodies (strain) or fields (electric or magnetic).

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 Types of Human Touch
 Cutaneous Sensations - Cutaneous sense receives sensory inputs from the receptors embedded
in the skin.
 Senses : temperature, pressure, pain
 Kinesthetic Sensations - Kinesthetic sense receives sensory inputs from the receptors located
within muscles, tendons and joints.
 Senses : body position, movement, equilibrium A grid of Tactels
 Cutaneous Touch (Internal Sensing) – Tactel grid
 Kinesthetic Touch (External Sensing) – Force-Torque Sensor

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 Tactile sensing: Methods of Transduction

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 Tactile sensing: Methods of Transduction
 Usually an array of discrete sensing elements.
 Sensing elements can be many types:
 Resistive: strain gauge, piezoresistive.
 Capacitive
 Piezoelectric
 & others like (magnetic, optical, conductive rubber, ultrasonic).
Capacitive Sensing Elements
 Mechanical deformation changes the capacitance of parallel conducting plates.
 Main application area: Touchscreens.
 Advantages: good dynamic range, linearity
 Disadvantages: noise, measuring capacitance is hard
(compared to measuring resistance)

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 The basic working principle of a touch sensor is that it detects near proximity (also known as touch)
without depending on physical contact.
 When any physical medium comes in contact with the touch surface. The internal circuit will be
closed inside the sensor and current starts flowing. On the other hand, when this physical contact is
broken or released, the circuit will be opened.
 The touch sensors are classified into two categories
 Capacitive touch sensor
 Resistive touch sensor.

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 Capacitive Touch Sensor
 The capacitive touch sensors are very popular since they are more robust, durable, and user friendly.
Moreover, it is also cost-effective when compared to resistive touch sensors.
 The capacitive sensor is made just similar to the normal capacitor. There are two conductors
separated from the insulator.
 The capacitance of the sensor can be expressed as C = ε0 x εr x A / d
 There are two parallel plates that form a capacitor with the capacitance value represented as C0. As
we touch the sensor through our finger, our finger acts as a conductive object and hence produces a
capacitance value of CT as shown in the figure.
 The capacitance C0 is measured continuously with the help of the capacitance measurement circuit.
The capacitance measuring circuit will detect the change in the capacitance and will convert it into a
signal.

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 Working Principle
 If the parallel plates have a more larger area and the thickness of the insulator is very less then there
would be the greater value of the touch capacitance (i.e. CT). Therefore the difference of the
capacitance value when the plate is touched and the plate is untouched will be greater.
 So, by controlling the size of the parallel plate and the thickness of the insulator we can control the
sensitivity of the capacitive touch sensor.
 However, has few drawbacks such as there could be a false trigger since all it needs is to be in a
contact with a conducting material and does not require a pressure to operate.

CT

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 Capacitive Touch Sensor

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 TOUCH SENSOR
 Resistive Touch Sensor

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Applications
 Capacitive Touch Sensor: produced very easily at a very large scale can be made at very less cost
and are very attractive in design.
 These are widely used in iPods, mobile phones, home appliances, automotive, and many other
industrial applications. They are used in applications such as measuring pressure, acceleration,
distance, etc.
 Resistive Touch Sensor: these sensors can not sense the small contact or touch.
 It requires an amount force to operate, so they are used in applications such as Foot pronation
monitoring, musical instrument, keypads (mostly used in old mobile phones), resistive touch-pads,
and many other applications.

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