Lecture 4a:

WATER APPLICATION
TECHNIQUES

C.M. Pascual
Professor, SCECT

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 Lecture 4 Outline
4.1. Land Grading, Survey and Design
4.2. Border
4.3. Furrow
4.4. Check-Basin
4.5. Surface Irrigation System Design
4.6. SIRMOD III Exercise

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Land Grading, Survey and Design
4.1 Land preparation and field layout
Land grading is reshaping of the field surface to a planned grade.
 Land levelling operations may be grouped into three phases:
a) Rough grading
b) Land levelling
c) Land smoothing
 Criteria for land levelling
• Land levelling is influenced by
a) the characteristics of the soil profile,
b) prevailing land slope,
c) rainfall characteristics,
d) cropping pattern,
e) methods of irrigation,
• Determining the centroid of
the filed: The distance of the
centriod from the reference
line is then obtained by
dividing the sum of the
products by the total number
of stakes
• Determining the average
elevation of the field: This is
obtained by adding the
elevations of all grid points in
the field and dividing the sum
by the number of points.
• Compute the slope of the
plane of best fit
The slope of any line in the x or
y direction on the plane which
fits the natural ground surface,
can be determined by the least
squares method
 Fig. 1. Grid map for land leveling
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 Fig. 2. Location of centroid of a field.
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 Plane Method
• This method assumes that the area is to be graded to a true
plane.
• The average elevation of the field is determined, and this
elevation is assigned to the centroid of the area.
• The centroid is located by taking moments about two
perpendicular references lines as shown in Fig. 2 for an
irregularly shaped field.
• This procedure has been simplified by locating the grid system
so that each grid is at the center of the grid square and
represents nearly equal areas (100 by 100 ft).
• In Fig 2., the centroid is located at Xc = 3.75 ft and Yc=2.84 ft,
and the average elevation is 8.3 ft.

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 Plane Method
• Any plane passing through the centroid will produce
equal volumes of cut and fill. The general equation for a
plane surface is,

E = a + Sx * X + Sy*Y (4.1)

where E = elevation at any point,

a = elevation at the origin,
Sx and Sy = slope in the x and y direction, respectively

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 Plane Method
• These slopes can be computed from two simultaneous equations,
which are;
(∑X2 – nXc2) Sx + [∑(XY) – nXcYc]Sy= ∑(XE)
– nXcEc (4.2)
(∑Y2 – nYc2) Sx + [∑(XY) – nXcYc]Sx= ∑(YE)
– nYcEc (4.3)

where n = total number of grid points,

Xc = X distance to the centroid,
Yc = Y distance to the centroid,
Ec = elevation of the centroid (average elevation of all points)

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 Plane Method
• For rectangular fields the terms involving XY
become zero, and
Sx = [∑(XE) – nXcEc ] / [∑X2 – nXc2] (4.4)

Sy = [∑(YE) – nYcEc ] / [∑Y2 – nYc2] (4.5)

Note: Above equations are valid only for
rectangular fields.

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 Sample problem
Determine the equation for the plane of best fit for
the field as shown in Fig. 2. All elevations are in
feet.
Solution;
As shown in Fig. 2, n=32, Xc = 3.75 ft and
Yc = 2.84 ft
Ec = (9.4 + 9.2 + 8.7 + … + 7.8 + 7.4)/32 = 9.37
∑X2 = 12 + 12 + 12 + 12 + 12 + 22 +. . . + 62 + 72 + 72 + 72 =
566
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 Sample problem
nXc = 32 * 3.752 = 450 ft
∑XY = (1 x 1) + (1 x 2) + (1 x 3) +. . . + (7 x 1) + (7 x
2) + (7 x 3) = 327 ft
nXcYc = 32 x 3.75 x 2.84 = 340.8 ft
∑(XE) = (1 9.2) + (1 x 9.2) + (1 x 8.7) + . . . +
(7 x 7.8) + (7 x 7.4) = 975.80 ft
nXcEc = 32 x 3.75 x 8.37 = 1004.40 ft

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 Sample problem
Solving for slopes, using eq. 4.2 and 4.3
(566- 450) Sx + (327 – 340.8)Sy = 975.80 – 1003.87
(327 – 340.8) Sx + (319 – 258.1)Sy = 749.40 – 760.27
These 2 simultaneous equations results in
Sx = - 0.27 ft/100 ft
Sy = - 0.24 ft/100 ft

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 Sample problem
Since the plane of best fit must pass through the
centroid, substituting the above values in
equaition 4.1 gives the elevation of the origin
as 10.07 ft. Thus, the plane of best fit is,

E = 10.07 – 0.27X – 0.24Y

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 Fig. 3. determination of plane for best fit.
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 IRRIGATION METHODS AND DESIGNS

• 4.1 IRRIGATION METHODS

a) Surface Irrigation: Just flooding water. About 90% of the irrigated areas in
the world are by this method.

b) Sprinkler Irrigation: Applying water under pressure. About 5 % of the

irrigated areas are by this method.

c) Drip or Trickle Irrigation: Applying water slowly to the soil ideally at the
same rate with crop consumption.

d) Sub-Surface Irrigation: Flooding water underground and allowing it to come

up by capillarity to crop roots.

e) Others: rain-water harvesting: Collection of runoff in arid and semi-arid

areas, like Ethiopia.
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 Layout and function of irrigation system components.
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 4.2 SURFACE IRRIGATION
• Water is applied to the field in either the controlled or
uncontrolled manner by furrow, basin, border irrigation
methods.
• Controlled: Water is applied from the head ditch and guided
by corrugations, furrows, borders, or ridges.
• Uncontrolled: Wild flooding.
• Surface irrigation is entirely practiced where water is
abundant. The low initial cost of development is later offset
by high labor cost of applying water. There are deep
percolation, runoff and drainage problems.

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 Irrigation techniques
Surface irrigation: Flow

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 The basic phases of a surface irrigation event.
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 Irrigation techniques
Surface irrigation: Flow

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 Irrigation techniques
Surface irrigation: Inlet arrangements

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 Irrigation techniques
Surface irrigation: Inlet arrangements

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 Irrigation techniques
Surface irrigation: Inlet arrangements

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 Fundamentals of irrigation
Surface irrigation: The quarter time rule

Tf = Time to reach the

T
Tf  a opposite end of the field (hr)
4 Ta = Application time (hr)

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 Irrigation techniques
Surface irrigation: Basin irrigation

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 4.2.1 Furrow Irrigation
• In furrow irrigation, only a part of the land
surface (the furrow) is wetted thus minimizing
evaporation loss.
• Furrow irrigation is adapted for row crops like
corn, banana, tobacco, and cabbage. It is also
good for grains.
• Irrigation can be by corrugation using small
irrigation streams.
• Furrow irrigation is adapted for irrigating on
various slopes except on steep ones because of
erosion and bank overflow.
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 Furrow Irrigation… Cont’d.
• There are different ways of applying water to the furrow.
• As shown in Fig. 4.1, siphons are used to divert water from the
head ditch to the furrows.
• There can also be direct gravity flow whereby water is delivered
from the head ditch to the furrows by cutting the ridge or levee
separating the head ditch and the furrows (see diagram from
Gumb's book).
• Gated pipes can also be used. Large portable pipe(up to 450
mm) with gate openings spaced to deliver water to the furrows
are used.
• Water is pumped from the water source in closed conduits.
• The openings of the gated pipe can be regulated to control the
discharge rate into the furrows.
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 Fig. 4.1: A Furrow System

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 Furrow Irrigation by Cutting the Ridge

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 Furrow Irrigation with Siphons

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 Furrow irrigation using siphon tubes from a field bay.

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 Irrigation techniques
Surface irrigation: Furrow irrigation

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 Irrigation techniques
Surface irrigation: Furrow irrigation

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 Irrigation techniques
Surface irrigation: Furrow irrigation

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 Irrigation techniques
Surface irrigation: Furrow irrigation

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 Irrigation techniques
Surface irrigation: Furrow irrigation

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 Irrigation techniques
Surface irrigation: Furrow irrigation: Infiltration

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 Irrigation techniques
Surface irrigation: Furrow irrigation: Scaling

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 Irrigation techniques
Surface irrigation: Furrow irrigation: Scaling

Slope Max Average irrigation depth (mm)

(%) stream
size Clay Loam Sand
(l/s)
75 150 50 100 150 50 75 100

0.05 3.0 300 400 120 270 400 60 90 150

0.1 3.0 340 440 180 340 440 90 120 190

0.2 2.5 370 470 220 370 470 120 190 250

0.3 2.0 400 500 280 400 500 150 220 280

0.5 1.2 400 500 280 370 470 120 190 250

1.0 0.6 280 400 250 300 370 90 150 220

1.5 0.5 250 340 220 280 340 80 120 190

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 Irrigation techniques
Surface irrigation: Furrow irrigation

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 4.2.1.1 Design Parameters of Furrow Irrigation

• The Major Design Considerations in Surface Irrigation Include:

1. Storing the Readily Available Moisture in the Root Zone, if

Possible;
2. Obtaining As Uniform Water Application As Possible;
3. Minimizing Soil Erosion by Applying Non-erosive Streams;
4. Minimizing Runoff at the End of the Furrow by Using a Re-use
System or a Cut -Back Stream;
5. Minimizing Labour Requirements by Having Good Land
Preparation,
6. Good Design and Experienced Labour and
7. Facilitating Use of Machinery for Land Preparation, Cultivation,
Furrowing, Harvesting Etc.
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 Furrow Irrigation… Cont’d.
• The Specific Design Parameters of Furrow
Irrigation Are Aimed at Achieving the Above
Objectives and Include:
• a) Shape and Spacing of Furrows: Heights of
ridges vary between 15 cm and 40 cm and the
distance between the ridges should be based on the
optimum crop spacing modified, if necessary to
obtain adequate lateral wetting, and to
accommodate the track of mechanical equipment.
• The range of spacing commonly used is from 0.3
to 1.8 m with 1.0 m as the average.

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 Design Parameters of Furrow Irrigation…
Cont’d.
• b) Selection of the Advance or Initial Furrow Stream:
In permeable soils, the maximum non-erosive flow
within the furrow capacity can be used so as to enable
wetting of the end of the furrow to begin as soon as
possible.
• The maximum non-erosive flow (Qm) is given by:
Qm = c/S
where c is a constant = 0.6 when Qm is in l/s and S is
slope in %.

• Example 1: For a soil slope of 0.1 %, the Qm is 0.6/0.1

= 6 l/s.
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 Design Parameters of Furrow Irrigation…
Cont’d.
• The actual stream size should be determined by field
tests.
• It is desirable that this initial stream size reaches the end
of the furrow in T/4 time where T is the total time
required to apply the required irrigation depth.

• c) Cut-back Stream: This is the stream size to which

the initial stream is reduced sometime after it has
reached the lower end of the field.
• This is to reduce soil erosion.
• One or two cutbacks can be carried out and removing
some siphons or reducing the size at the head of the
furrow achieves this.
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 Design Parameters of Furrow Irrigation…
Cont’d.
• d) Field Slope: To reduce costs of land
grading, longitudinal and cross slopes should be
adapted to the natural topography.
• Small cross slopes can be tolerated.
• To reduce erosion problems during rainfall,
furrows (which channel the runoff) should have a
limited slope (see Table 4.1).

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 Table 4.1 : Maximum Slopes for Various Soil Types

Soil Type Maximum slopes*

Sand 0.25
Sandy loam 0.40
Fine sandy loam 0.50
Clay 2.50
Loam 6.25
Source: Withers & Vipond (1974)
• *A minimum slope of about 0.05 % is required to
ensure surface drainage.

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 Design Parameters of Furrow Irrigation…
Cont’d.
• e) Furrow Length: Very long lengths
lead to a lot of deep percolation involving
over-irrigation at the upper end of the
furrow and under-irrigation at the lower
end.
• Typical values are given in Table 4.2, but
actual furrow lengths should be got from
field tests.

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 Table 4.2. Typical furrow lengths for
various soil types and slopes

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 Design Parameters of Furrow Irrigation…
Cont’d.
• e) Field Widths: Widths are flexible but
should not be of a size to enclose variable
soil types.
• The widths should depend on land grading
permissible.

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4.2.1.2 Evaluation of a Furrow Irrigation System

• The objective is to determine fairly accurately

how the system is used and to suggest possible
amendments or changes.

• Equipment: Engineers Level and Staff,

• 30 m Tape,
• Marker Stakes,
• Siphons of Various Sizes,
• Two Small Measuring Flumes,
• Watch with Second Hand and Spade.
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Evaluation of a Furrow Irrigation System …
Cont’d.
• Procedure
• a) Select several (say 3 or more) uniform test furrows which should
be typical of those in the area.
• b) Measure the average furrow spacing and note the shape,
condition etc.
• c) Set the marker stakes at 30 m intervals down the furrows.
• d) Take levels at each stake and determine the average slope.
• e) Set the flumes say 30 m apart at the head of the middle furrow.
• f) Pass constant flow streams down the furrows, using wide range
of flows. The largest flow should just cause erosion and
overtopping, the smallest might just reach the end of the furrow.
The median stream should have a discharge of about Q = 3/4 S
(l/s) where S is the % slope.

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 Evaluation of a Furrow Irrigation System …Cont’d.
• g) Record the time when flow starts and passes each marker in each
flow(advance data).
• h) Record the flow at each flume periodically until the flows become practically
constant. This may take several hours on fine textured soils(Infiltration data).
• i) Check for evidence of erosion or overtopping.
• j) Move the flumes and measure the streams at the heads only of the other
furrows.
•
• Results: To be presented in a format shown:
• ............................................................................................................
• Watch Opportunity time(mins)
• Station A Station B Losses
• Time A B C Depth Flow Depth Flow Diff Infil.
• (mm) ( L/s) (mm) (L/s) (L/s) (mm/h)
• ..............................................................................................................
•

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 4.2.2. Border Irrigation System
• In a border irrigation, controlled surface flooding is
practiced whereby the field is divided up into strips by
parallel ridges or dykes and each strip is irrigated
separately by introducing water upstream and it
progressively covers the entire strip.
• Border irrigation is suited for crops that can withstand
flooding for a short time e.g. wheat.
• It can be used for all crops provided that the system is
designated to provide the needed water control for
irrigation of crops.
• It is suited to soils between extremely high and very low
infiltration rates.

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 Irrigation techniques
Surface irrigation: Border irrigation

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 Irrigation techniques
Surface irrigation: Border irrigation

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 Irrigation techniques
Surface irrigation: Border irrigation

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 Irrigation techniques
Surface irrigation: Border irrigation: Scaling

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 Irrigation techniques
Surface irrigation: Border irrigation: Scaling
Soil type Irrigation Slope Width Length Unit
depth (%) (m) (m) stream
(mm) (l/s/m)

Sand 100 0.2 12-30 60-100 10-15

0.4 10-12 60-100 8-10

0.8 5-10 75 5-7

Sand 150 0.2 15-30 90-300 4-6

0.4 10-12 90-180 3-5

0.8 5-10 90 2-4

Sand 200 0.2 15-30 350+ 3-6

0.4 10-12 180-300 2-4

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 Irrigation techniques
Surface irrigation: Border irrigation: Scaling

Soil type Humid areas Arid areas

Bare soil Good crop Bare soil Good crop

cover cover

Sand 0.3 1.0 1.0 2.0

Clay 0.5 2.0 2.0 5.0

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 Irrigation techniques
Surface irrigation: Border irrigation: Problems

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 Irrigation techniques
Surface irrigation: Border irrigation: Problems

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 Border Irrigation System

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 Border Irrigation

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 Border Irrigation… Cont’d.
• In border irrigation, water is applied slowly.
• The root zone is applied water gradually down
the field.
• At a time, the application flow is cut-off to reduce
water loses.
• Ideally, there is no runoff and deep percolation.
• The problem is that the time to cut off the inflow
is difficult to determine.

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4.2.2.2 Design Parameters of Border Irrigation System

• a) Strip width: Cross slopes must be eliminated by leveling.

• Since there are no furrows to restrict lateral movement, any cross
slope will make water move down one side leading to poor
application efficiency and possibly erosion.
• The stream size available should also be considered in choosing a
strip width.
• The size should be enough to allow complete lateral spreading
throughout the length of the strip.
• The width of the strip for a given water supply is a function of the
length (Table 4.5).
• The strip width should be at least bigger than the size of vehicle
tract for construction where applicable.

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 Design Parameters of Border Irrigation
System… Cont’d.
• b) Strip Slope: Longitudinal slopes should be almost same as for
the furrow irrigation.
• c) Construction of Levees: Levees should be big enough to
withstand erosion, and of sufficient height to contain the irrigation
stream.
• d) Selection of the Advance Stream: The maximum advance
stream used should be non-erosive and therefore depends on the
protection afforded by the crop cover. Clay soils are less
susceptible to erosion but suffer surface panning at high water
velocities. Table 4.4 gives the maximum flows recommendable for
bare soils.
• e) The Length of the Strip: Typical lengths and widths for various
flows are given in Table 4.5. The ideal lengths can be obtained by
field tests.

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 Table 4.4 Maximum flows recommendable for bare
soils.

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 Table 4.5. Typical lengths and widths for various flows.

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 4.2.2.3 Evaluation of a Border Strip
• The aim is to vary various parameters with the aim of
obtaining a good irrigation profile.
• Steps
• a) Measure the infiltration rate of soils and get the
cumulative infiltration curve. Measurement can be by
double ring infiltrometer.

Depth of Water, D = KTn

D (mm)

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Time, T (mins)
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Fig 3.5: Cumulative Infiltration Curve
 Evaluation of Border Strip.. Cont’d.

• b) Mark some points on the border strip and check

the advance of water. Also check recession. For
steep slopes, recession of water can be seen unlike
in gentle slopes where it may be difficult to see. In
border irrigation, recession is very important because
unlike furrows, there is no place water can seep into
after water is turned off.

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 Time Distance Diagram of the Border
System

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 Evaluation of the Border System …Cont’d.

• About two-thirds down the border, the flow is turned off

and recession starts.
• The difference between the advance and recession
curves gives the opportunity time or total time when
water is in contact with the soil.
• For various distances, obtain the opportunity times from
the advance/recession curves and from the cumulative
infiltration curve, obtain the depths of water.
• With the depth and distance data, plot the irrigation
profile depth shown below.

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 Depth- Distance Diagram of the Border
System

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 Evaluation of the Border System.. Cont’d.

• The depth of irrigation obtained is compared with the SMD (ideal

irrigation depth).
• There is deep percolation and runoff at the end of the field.
• The variables can then be changed to give different shapes of
graphs to see the one to reduce runoff and deep percolation. In this
particular case above, the inflow can be stopped sooner. The
recession curve then changes.
• The profile now obtained creates deficiency at the ends of the
borders (see graph: dotted lies above).
• A good profile of irrigation can be obtained by varying the flow,
which leads to a change in the recession curve, and by choosing a
reasonable contact time each time using the infiltration curve.

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 4.2.3 Basin Irrigation System

• 4.2.3.1 Description: In basin irrigation, water is flooded

in wider areas. It is ideal for irrigating rice.
• The area is normally flat.
• In basin irrigation, a very high stream size is introduced
into the basin so that rapid movement of water is
obtained.
• Water does not infiltrate a lot initially.
• At the end, a bond is put and water can pond the field.
• The opportunity time difference between the upward and
the downward ends are reduced.

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 Typical basin irrigation system.
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 Irrigation techniques
Surface irrigation: Basin irrigation

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 Irrigation techniques
Surface irrigation: Basin irrigation: Scaling

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 Fundamentals of irrigation
Surface irrigation: Basin irrigation: Scaling
Stream size (l/s) Sand Sandy Clay loam Clay
loam
15 0.01 0.03 0.06 0.10

30 0.02 0.06 0.12 0.20

60 0.04 0.12 0.24 0.40

90 0.06 0.18 0.36 0.60

120 0.08 0.24 0.48 0.80

150 0.10 0.30 0.60 1.00

180 0.12 0.36 0.72 1.20

210 0.14 0.42 0.84 1.40

240 0.16 0.48 0.96 1.60

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 Irrigation techniques
Surface irrigation: Basin irrigation: Problems

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 Irrigation techniques
Surface irrigation: Basin irrigation: Terracing

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 Basin Irrigation Diagram

rrigation time.
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 4.2.3.2 Size of Basins
• The size of basin is related to stream size and soil type(See Table 3.6
below).
• Table 3.6: Suggested basin areas for different soil types and rates of water flow
• Flow rate Soil Type
• Sand Sandy loam Clay loam Clay
• l/s m /hr 3
.................Hectares............. ...................
• 30 108 0.02 0.06 0.12 0.20
• 60 216 0.04 0.12 0.24 0.40
• 90 324 0.06 0.18 0.36 0.60
• 120 432 0.08 0.24 0.48 0.80
• 150 540 0.10 0.30 0.60 1.00
• 180 648 0.12 0.36 0.72 1.20
• 210 756 0.14 0.42 0.84 1.40
• 240 864 0.16 0.48 0.96 1.60
• 300 1080 0.20 0.60 1.20 2.00
• ...........................................................................................
• Note: The size of basin for clays is 10 times that of sand as the infiltration rate for clay is low leading to higher
irrigation time. The size of basin also increases as the flow rate increases. The table is only a guide and practical
values from an area should be relied upon. There is the need for field evaluation.

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 4.2.3.3 Evaluation of Basin System

• a) Calculate the soil moisture deficiency and irrigation depth.

• b) Get the cumulative infiltration using either single or double ring
infiltrometer.

I = c Tn
Infiltered
Depth (mm)

Time (mins)

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 Evaluation of a Basin System… Cont’d.
• c) Get the advance curves using sticks to monitor rate of
water movement. Plot a time versus distance graph
(advance curve). Also plot recession curve or assume it
to be straight

• It is ensured that water reaches the end of the basin at

T/4 time and stays T time before it disappears. At any
point on the advance and recession curves, get the
contact or opportunity time and relate it to the depth-time
graph above to know the amount of water that has
infiltrated at any distance.

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 Time-Distance Graph of the Basin System

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 Depth-Distance Graphs of the Basin Irrigation System

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 Typical border and basin field outlets.
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 Evaluation of Basin Irrigation Concluded.

• Check the deficiency and decide whether

improvements are necessary or not. The
T/4 time can be increased or flow rate
changed. The recession curve may not be
a straight line but a curve due to some low
points in the basin.

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 Lecture 4.5
Surface Irrigation System Design
• Surface irrigation has evolved into an
extensive array of configurations which can be
broadly classified as:
1. Basin irrigation;
2. Border irrigation;
3. Furrow irrigation; and
4. Uncontrolled flooding.
• The time and space references shown in Figure 1 are
relatively standard.
• Time is cumulative since the beginning of the irrigation,
distance is referenced to the point water enters the
field.
• The advance and recession curves are therefore
trajectories of the leading and receding edges of the
surface flows and the period defined between the two
curves at any distance is the time water is on the surface
and therefore also the time water is infiltrating into the
soil.
Fig. 1. Time-space trajectory of water during a surface irrigation.
 Requirements of Optimal Performance

• As to achieve high levels of uniformity and

efficiency in surface irrigation several practices
shall be utilized. The practices are as follows:
• • precise and careful field preparation;
• • irrigation scheduling;
• • regulation of inflow discharges; and
• • tail water runoff restrictions, reduction, or
reuse.
 DESIGN CONSIDERATION
• The performance of a surface irrigation system is dependent
on many factors, which are shown in the following functional
relationship;

Where P = performance of surface irrigation

I = symbolizes the infiltration parameters
So = channel bed slope; n = hydraulic resistance
G = symbolizes geometry parameters
Zr = required amount of application
q0 = unit flow rate at the head end of the channel
tco = time of cut off ; L = furrow length
 DESIGN CONSIDERATION
• Surface Irrigation Hydraulics
• The Equations describing the hydraulics of surface irrigation
are the continuity and momentum equation. These equations
are known as the St. Venant equation. In general, the
continuity equation expressing the conservation of mass, can
be written as:
 DESIGN CONSIDERATION
• Surface Irrigation Hydraulics
• The momentum equation expressing the dynamic equilibrium
of the flow process is:

where, y - Depth of flow (m) ; t -Time from beginning of

irrigation (sec) ; v - Velocity of flow as f (x, t) (m/s); x -
Distance along the furrow length (m); I - Infiltrations rate as f
(x, t) (m/s); g - Acceleration due to gravity (m/s²); So-
Longitudinal slope of furrow (m/m); Sf- Slope of energy grade
line (friction slope) in (m/m); A - Cross-sectional area as f (x, t)
(m²); Q - The discharge (m³/s)
 DESIGN CONSIDERATION
• 1. Surface Irrigation Principles
• The design procedures outlined in this manual are based on a
target application, required infiltrated volume of water Zreq,
which equals the soil moisture extracted by the crop.
• The design intake opportunity time is defined by:
 DESIGN PROCESS
• 1. Evaluation of the field topography to determine
the general land slopes in the direction of expected
water flow;
• 2. Using this information along with target
application depths derived from an analysis of crop
water requirements, the detailed design process
moves to the selection of flow rates and their
duration that maximize application efficiency,
tempered however by a continual review of the
practical matters involved in farming the field later;
 DESIGN PROCESS
• 3. The next step in detailed design is to reconcile the flows
and times with the total flow and its duration allocated to the
field from the water supply
• 4. Once the field dimensions and flow parameters have been
formulated, the surface irrigation system must be described
structurally; and
• 5. To apply the water, pipes or ditches with associated control
elements must be sized for the field. If tail water is permitted,
means for removing these flows must be provided
 Design Computation
1. Computation of Intake Opportunity Time
• The basic mathematical model of infiltration
utilized as the following:
 Design Computation
1. Computation of Intake Opportunity Time… cont’n

• In order to express intake as a depth of application, Z must be

divided by the unit width.
• For furrows, the unit width is the furrow spacing, w, while for
borders and basins it is 1.0. Values of k, a, fo and w along with
the volume per unit length required to refill the root zone,
Zreq, are design input data.
• The design procedure requires that the intake opportunity
time associated with Zreq be known. The intake opportunity
time, represented by rreq, requires a nonlinear solution
 Design Computation
2. Determining the Intake Opportunity Time..cont’n
• To determine the intake opportunity time:
• Plotting of Eq. 10.2 with the parameters being used in the
design.
• Determine time using the Newton-Raphson procedure which
is three simple steps as follows:
• Step 1: Make an initial estimate of rreq and label it T1;
• Step 2: Compute a revised estimate of rreq, T2:
 Design Computation
2. Determining the Intake Opportunity Time… cont’n

Step 3: Compare the values of the initial and revised

estimates of rreq (T1 and T2) by taking their absolute
difference. If they are equal to each other or within an
acceptable tolerance of about 0.5 minutes, the value of rreq is
determined as the result. If they are not sufficiently equal in
value, replace T1 by T2 and repeat steps 2 and 3.
 Determining Basic Intake Rate
Several approaches can be used for determining a
value for basic intake rate, fo in the infiltration
equation.
• One method utilizes the data from blocked furrow
or cylinder infiltrometer tests made the day before
irrigation. After an infiltrometer test has been run
for several hours (the time being dependent on
soil type), the essentially constant rate of
infiltration can be taken to be the basic intake
rate, fo.
 Determining Basic Intake Rate
Several approaches can be used for determining a
value for basic intake rate, fo in the infiltration
equation…cont’n
• If a runoff hydrograph is not measured, such as
for a basin evaluation, it is suggested that
• Table 10.1 and Figure 10.2 be used to define fo
based on intake family by soil type.
• The 'two-point' method of evaluating fo from
the inflow-outflow hydrograph
 Computation of Advance Time
• The time required for water to cover the field,
the advance time, necessitates evaluation or
approximation of the advance trajectory.
• The first step is to describe the flow cross-
sectional area (Ao). For furrows and borders
flow cross-sectional area (Ao) is;
Computation of Advance Time
Computation of Advance Time
• The parameters p1 and p2 are empirical shape
coefficients. For border systems p1 equals 1.0 and p2
is 1.67. For most furrow irrigated conditions, p2 will
have a value ranging from 1.3 to 1.5.
• The furrow hydraulics is not too sensitive to variations
in p2 and a value of 1.35 will usually be adequate. The
value of p1 varies according to the size and shape of
the furrow, usually in the range of 0.3 to 0.7.
• Figure 10.3 shows three typical furrow shapes and
their corresponding p1 and p2 values.
Computation of Advance Time
In a level slope condition, such as a basin, it is assumed
that the friction slope is equal to the inlet depth, yo in m,
divided by the distance covered by water, x in m. This
leads to the following expression for Ao:

The input data required for advance phase calculations

are p1, p2 field length L, So, n and Qo. This information
can be used to solve for the time of advance, t L, using
either of two procedures:
1) Volume balance numerical approach; or
2) Graphical approach
 1) Numerical Approach
• For the volume balance numerical approach, the equation
below is used to describe the advance trajectory at two
points: the end of the field and the half-way point.

where Ao is cross-section area of flow at the inlet, m2, Qo is

inlet discharge in m3/min/furrow or unit width, t is elapsed
time since the irrigation started in min. Sz is the subsurface
shape factor. Sz is defined as:
 1) Numerical Approach..cont’n
• The inlet cross-sectional flow area, Ao, can be computed using
the uniform flow equation rearranged as follows:

Values of the Manning roughness coefficient, n, range from

about 0.02 for previously irrigated and smooth soil, to about
0.04 for freshly tilled soil, to about 0.15 for conditions where
dense growth obstructs the water movement.
 1) Numerical Approach..cont’n
• The two common points are the mid-distance of the field and
the end of the field. For the mid-distance:

and for the end of the field:

where t0.5L is advance time to one-half the field length in

min, tL is advance time to the end of the field in min, and L
is field length in m.
 1) Numerical Approach..cont’n
• The above equation contains two unknowns, tL and r, which
are related by equation below;
 1) Numerical Approach..cont’n
In order to solve them, a two-point advance trajectory is defined in the
following procedure:
• Step 1: The power advance exponent r typically has a value of 0.1-0.9. The
first step is to make an initial estimate of its value and label this value r1,
usually setting r1 = 0.4 to 0.6 are good initial estimates. Then, a revised
estimate of r is computed and compared below.
• Step 2: Calculate the subsurface shape factor, sz,
• Step 3: Calculate the time of advance, tL, using the following Newton-
Raphson procedure.
• Step 4: Compute the time of advance to the field mid-point, t0.5L, using
the same procedure as outlined in step 3. The half-length, 0.5L is
substituted for L and t0.5L for tL . For level fields, the half-length and the
flow area must be substituted. Eq. 10.8 is used with L and 0.5L to find the
appropriate values of Ao.
 1) Numerical Approach..cont’n
In order to solve them, a two-point advance trajectory is defined in the
following procedure:
• Step 5: Compute a revised estimate of r as follows:

Step 6: Compare the initial estimate, r1, with the revised estimate, r2.
The differences between the two should be less than 0.0001. If they
are equal, the procedure for finding tL is concluded. If not, let r1 = r2
and repeat steps 2-6.
 1) Numerical Approach..cont’n
Newton-Raphson procedure is used for calculating tL , as follows:
• Step a: Assume an initial estimate of tL as T1

Step b: Compute a revised estimate of tL (T2) as

 1) Numerical Approach..cont’n
• Step c:
• Compare the initial (T1) and revised (T2) estimates of tL.
• If they are within about 0.5 minutes or less, the analysis
proceeds to step 4. If they are not equal, let T1 = T2 and repeat
steps b through c.
• It should be noted that if the inflow is insufficient to complete
the advance phase in about 24 hours, the value of Qo is too
small or the value of L is too large and the design process
should be restarted with revised values.
• This can be used to evaluate the feasibility of a flow value and
to find the inflow.
 FURROW IRRIGATION DESIGN
• There are three types of primary furrow
designs:
• • Furrow systems without cutback
• • Furrow system with cutback
• • Furrow system with tail water recirculation
system
 FURROW IRRIGATION DESIGN
1. Design Procedure for Furrow Systems - without Cutback
• Design procedures are as follows:
• Input Data:
 FURROW IRRIGATION DESIGN
1. Design Procedure for Furrow Systems - without Cutback
• The maximum flow velocity in furrows is suggested
as about 8-10 m/min in erosive silt soils to about 13 -
15 m/min in the more stable clay and sandy soils. A
maximum value of furrow inlet flow, Qmax m3/min,
that will fall within the maximum, Vmax, is:
 FURROW IRRIGATION DESIGN
2. Design Procedure for Furrow System - with Cutback
• The design procedure for the system illustrated in Figure 10.6
follows a sequence not entirely unlike that of the non-cutback
systems but with several points of additional concern.
• In addition to information describing the furrow geometry,
infiltration characteristics, field slope and length, and the
required application, it is also necessary to know the
relationship between head ditch water level and the furrow
inflow:

where c1 and c2 are empirical coefficients, h is the head over the

outlets, in m, and A is the outlet area in cm2.
Figure 10.6. Schematic Drawing of the Furrow Cutback
System (Garton, 1966)
 FURROW IRRIGATION DESIGN
2. Design Procedure for Furrow System - with Cutback
• The design procedure for the system illustrated in Figure 10.6
follows a sequence not entirely unlike that of the non-cutback
systems but with several points of additional concern.
• In addition to information describing the furrow geometry,
infiltration characteristics, field slope and length, and the
required application, it is also necessary to know the
relationship between head ditch water level and the furrow
inflow:

where c1 and c2 are empirical coefficients, h is the head over the

outlets, in m, and A is the outlet area in cm2.
 Border Irrigation Design
• Assumptions
• Surface water profiles at time of cutoff (the time at which
water inflow is shutoff to the field,) as well as (at the end
of depletion and also at the beginning of recession,) are
straight lines with end points corresponding to uniform
flow conditions (Fig.1).
• Depth at the downstream end remains constant during
the depletion phase and runoff () occurs at a constant rate.
• During both depletion and recession phases, the sum of
infiltration (I) and runoff () remains equal to the pre cutoff
unit inflow rate
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 Border Irrigation Design

Fig.1. Water surface profiles at the beginning of depletion and recession

phases.
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 Border Irrigation Design
• With these assumption, the time required
from the cutoff time to the end of depletion
phase, is equal to the time required to remove
a triangular volume of length L and height at a
constant rate as both infiltration and runoff. It
can be expressed as:

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 Border Irrigation Design
• At the beginning of recession, it is assumed
that the depth changes with distance at
uniform rate over the entire length of border,
which can be expressed as:
•

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 Border Irrigation Design
• Where Sy is function of at time td and can be
evaluated as follows:
•

or border, A = y and WP = 1 and therefore R = y or and I is

the average infiltration rate (m/sec) over the length, L.

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 Border Irrigation Design
• Sy becomes
•

I can be expressed as a mean of infiltration rate at the

upstream end (I()) and at the downstream end I(td - tL):

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 Border Irrigation Design
• Walker and Skogerboe (1987) provided an
equation for estimating the recession time as
follows
•

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 A step wise design procedure for free
drained borders:
• 1. Collect information related to field characteristics, soil, crop, and
water supply.
•
Sl. no Design variables symbols

Kostiakov-Lewis infiltration model a ,k ,fo

1
parameters
2 Field length L
3 Field width Wf
4 field slope S0
5 Manning’s roughness coefficient n
6 Border shape coefficients ρ1,p2
7 Required depth of irrigation Zreq
8 Soil erosive velocity Vmax
9 Water supply rate Q
10 Duration of water supply T
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 A step wise design procedure for free
drained borders:
• 2. Determine the maximum (Qmax) and minimum (Qmin) values
of unit inflow rate Q0 (m³/min/m) using below equation (to
limit the flow within the non-erosive velocity with sufficient
depth to spread laterally):
•

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 A step wise design procedure for free
drained borders:
• 3. Select unit flow rate ) between and in such a way that it
results in a set width that contains an even number of borders
of satisfactory width and integer number of sets using below
equation:
•

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 A step wise design procedure for free
drained borders:
• 4. Compute the inflow depth at the inlet (m) using below
equation:
•

5. Compute (min) to satisfy the irrigation requirement

from the following equation

where Zreq is the required depth of infiltration.

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 A step wise design procedure for free
drained borders:
• 6. Compute the time of advance to the end of
border (min) (using procedure described in Lecture
31).
• 7. Compute the time of recession (minutes since the
beginning of irrigation) assuming that the design will meet
irrigation requirement at the end of the border

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 A step wise design procedure for free
drained borders:
• 8. Compute the depletion time (min) by using
Newton Raphson method as follows:
• a) Assume initial guess of td as T1 = tr
• b) Compute the average infiltration rate along the
border by averaging the rates as both ends at time T1
•

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 A step wise design procedure for free
drained borders:
• c) Compute the relative water surface slope,
•

d) Compute a revised estimate of the depletion time,

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 A step wise design procedure for free
drained borders:
• e) Compare the initial guess, with the new computed value.
If both values are equal then is found and continue with step
9. Otherwise, set and repeat steps b through e.
• 9. Compare the depletion time with the required intake
opportunity time. As recession is an important process in
border irrigation, it is possible for the applied depth at the
end of the field to be greater than at the inlet.

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 A step wise design procedure for free
drained borders:
• If td > rreq , the irrigation at the field inlet is adequate and the
application efficiency, Eacan be calculated by using the
following estimate of time of cutoff;

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 A step wise design procedure for free
drained borders:
• 10. If td < rreq the irrigation is not complete and the cutoff
time must be increased so the intake at the inlet is equal to
the required depth. The computation proceeds as follows

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 Sample Problem
1. Design a border irrigation system for the following
conditions:
• Field length, L = 200 m ; Field width, W = 100 m,
• The typical slopes are 0.8% in the 100 m dimension and
0.1% in the other;
• the Manning roughness coefficient for first irrigations
will be taken as 0.04 and for the later irrigations as 0.10
• Soil texture = silt ;
• Design irrigation requirement = 8 cm
• Shape parameters ρ= 1 and ρ2 = 1.67
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 Sample Problem..cont’n
1. Design a border irrigation system for the following conditions: …
cont’n
• Soils appear to be relatively non-erosive and have been tested to
yield the following infiltration function:

First irrigation:

Second irrigation:

• Infiltration function parameters: k = 0.0053, a = 0.327 and = 0.000052

• Available supply rate, Q= 1.8 m³/min
• Supply duration =36 hrs.

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 Solution
• Step 1. Calculate the maximum inflow per unit
width, Qmax for the first irrigation along the 200
m length where erosion is most likely:

And similarly for irrigations along the 100 m (SO = 0.008)

direction

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 Solution
• The minimum flow using later field roughness
where spreading may be a problem is for the
200 m length

Or in the 100 m direction:

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 Solution
• Step 2. Compute (min) to satisfy the irrigation
requirement ,for first irrigation and for second irrigation
• Step 3. Select within the range of and in case of later
irrigation
• The flow is adjusted and possible combinations are listed
below of borders,
Number Border width, Unit inflow rate (Q0)
(Nb) (Wb) m m³/min/m
1 100 0.018
2 50 0.036
3 33 0.545

Q0 = 0.036m³/min/m is selected
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 Solution
• Step 4. For an inflow of 0.036 m3/min/m, the advance time along
the 200 m length under later conditions is about 301.8 min

• Step 5. Compute the inflow depth at inlet (m) using the Manning’s
equation as follows:

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 Solution
• And value should be less than the ridge height
• Step 6. Compute the time of recession (in minutes since the
beginning of irrigation) assuming that the design will meet the
irrigation requirement at the end of the border

Step 7. Compute the depletion time in min using the Newton Raphson
method as follows:
a) Assume an initial estimate of td as td = tr = 980.8 min
b) Compute the average infiltration

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 Solution

c) Compute

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 Solution
d) Compute new value of as using below equation as
follows:

e) The initial guess ( ) is not close to the new computed value () and
repeat step b through e.

Step 8. Correct value of = 802.7 min

Step 9. Compute new by substituting in place of in following equation

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 Solution
Step 10. Compute application efficiency

Step 11. Check the water availability constraint and repeat

steps 4 to 10 for other unit inflow rates. Choose the design
which gives maximum Ea value.

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 Solution
This series of computations is repeated for the full range
of discharges, field lengths and infiltration conditions.
The following table gives a detailed summary of selected
options for the first and subsequent irrigation conditions
running in both the 200 m and 100 m directions.

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 Solution
First irrigation, L= 200m

Applic
Advan Rece Field ation
Border Unit flow, ce Cutoff
ssion on
Sets width, time, efficie
m³/min time, time, time, ncy,
m hr
hr hr hr
%
2 50 0.036 6.36 11.34 12.83 22.67 65.3
3 33 0.545 3.11 8.10 9.59 24.29 60.4
4 25 0.072 2.14 7.12 8.61 28.49 52
5 20 0.09 1.64 6.63 8.12 33.16 44.7
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 Solution
Later irrigation, L= 200m
Applica
Recessi
Border Unit Advanc Cutoff on
Field on tion
Sets width, flow,m³ e time, time, time, time, efficien
m /min hr hr hr cy,
hr
%

1 100 0.018 15.55 23.66 26.86 23.66 62.6

2 50 0.036 5.03 13.12 16.34 26.24 56.5
3 33 0.0545 3.15 11.25 14.47 33.76 43.4

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 Solution
First irrigation, L= 100m

Applica
Recessi Field
Border Unit Advanc Cutoff on on
tion
Sets width, flow, e time, time, time, time, efficien
m m³/min hr hr cy,
hr hr
%
2 100 0.018 5.27 11.21 11.74 22.42 66.1
3 67 0.0269 2.35 8.30 8.83 24.89 59.8
4 50 0.036 1.44 7.39 7.92 29.55 50.1
5 40 0.045 1.03 6.98 7.51 34.91 40.4

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 Solution
Later irrigation, L= 100m

Applica
Recessi Field
Border Unit Advanc Cutoff on on
tion
Sets width, flow, e time, time time, time, efficien
m m³/min hr ,hr cy,
hr hr
%
1 200 0.009 12.89 23.07 24.20 23.07 64.2
2 100 0.018 3.45 13.61 14.76 27.23 54.5

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 Exercise No. 2 use of SIRMOD III

Group work at computer lab 2. for 2

meetings…

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Assignment No. 3 (Due Next Week)
1. Estimate the advance time of a surface
irrigation method using numerical approach for
a field with the following data:
• Infiltration parameters: a = 0.568 ; k = 0.00324
m3/min/m ; fo = 0.000174 m3/min/m;
• Inflow Qo = 0.15 m3/min ; Slope So = 0.001;
• Length L = 200 m; Roughness n = 0.04 ;
• Hydraulic section: p1 = 0.55 ; p2 = 1.35.
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 Assignment No. 3
2. New farm units have been organized around a 2 hectare block 200 m by
100 m. Flows of 30 litres per second are allocated to each block for 48 hours
every 10 days. Initial field surveys showed that the fields needing first
attention were comprised of a loam soil, sloped 0.8 percent over the 100 m
direction and 0.1 percent over the 200 m direction. The furrows were placed
on 0.5 m intervals across the 100 m direction (and running in the 200 m
direction). The furrows were assumed to have a hydraulic section where p1 =
0.57 and p2 = 1.367. During the evaluations noted, the infiltration functions
characteristic of the field were divided into two relationships to describe the
first irrigation following cultivations and then the subsequent irrigations.
These relationships are:
• Z = 0.00346 t 0.388 + 0.000057 t (first irrigations); and
• Z = 0.0038 t 0.327 + 0.000037 t (later irrigations)

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 Assignment No. 3.. Cont’n
• The evaluation used a Manning coefficient of
n = 0.04 for all analyses. The crops expected
were studied along with the local climate and
it appeared that the best target depth of
application, or Zreq, would be 8 cm. With 0.5 m
furrow spacings, Zreq would be 0.04
m3/m/furrow. Water is in short supply so the
project planners would like an estimate of the
potential application efficiency with cutback.
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