DATABASE SYSTEMS

Lecturer: Muhammad Tajmal

Email: [email protected]
Network Model
The network model was developed to overcome the problems
of the hierarchical data model. It modified the hierarchical
model by allowing multiple parent-child relationships. These
relationships are known as sets in the network model. Its
structures and the language constructs were defined by
CODAS YL (Conference on data system language).
Characteristics of Network Model
The characteristics of a network DBMS are as follows:
1. Data record type is represented as a network
In this model, data record types are represented as a network.
2. Each submodule can have one or more super modules
Since multiple parent-child relationships are supported, child record types
could have more than one parent record type.
3. Represents a set of related records
The sets that support multiple parents-child relationships and the structure
of records have to be specified in advance.
4. Complex Structure
It sports multiple parent-child relationships that make the database structure
complex.
5. Relationships are Predefined
Network database implements sets that support multiple parent-child
relationships. The sets have to be specified in advance. In the tradeoff between
flexibility and performance, a network model is not very flexible to reorganize
but has a high-performance level.
6. Difficult To Reorganize
The network database is very difficult to reorganize. The insertion or deletion of
the record involves tracing the pointers and changing the appropriate links.
7. Navigation is done by Programmer
The programmer has to write 3GL programs to specify the relationship and
direction to navigate the database. A record-by-record navigation is required to
access a particular record.
8. Query facility not available
Network database management systems do not have any query facility.
3GL programs have to be written specifying the path and the relationship.
Relational Model:
What is Relational Model
Relational Database Terminology
Relation
Tuple
Attributes
Domain
Degree
Cardinality
Relational Model
Dr. E. F. Codd works to improve the working of DBMS to handle large
volumes of data. He applied the rules of mathematics to solve the
problems of earlier database models.
Some important problems were as follows:
• Data integrity
• Data redundancy
Dr. Codd presented a paper A Relational Model of data for large shared
Databanks in June 1970 that contained 12 rules. A DBMS that satisfies
these rules is called a full relational database management system
(RDBMS).The term relation is also derived from the set theory of
mathematics.
Relational Database Terminology
In a relational model, data is stored in relations. Relation is another term
used for table. A table in a database has a unique name that identifies its
contents. Each table can be called an intersection of rows and columns. An
important property of a table is that the rows are unordered. A row cannot
be identified by its position in the table. Every table must have a column
that uniquely identifies each row in the table. Some important technologies
used in the relational database model are as follows:
Relation
In a relational model, data is stored in relations. Relation is another term
used for table. Following is an example of a relation.
Tuple
In a rational model, every relation or table consists of many tuples.
Tuples are also called records or rows.
Attributes
An attribute is a named to column of a relation. Attributes are also called
characteristics.
The characteristics of the tuple are represented by attributes or fields .
Domain
A domain is a collection of all possible values of one or more attributes. For
example, the value in the field "Class" can be the name of any taught
classes. It is known as class domain. Similarly, Registration domain is a
collection of all possible Registration numbers.
Degree
The number of attributes is called the degree of that relation .
Cardinality
The number of tuples is called the cardinality of the relation.
Advantages of a Relational Database Model:
Simplicity
Data Independence
Structural Independence
Data Consistency and Accuracy
Easy data retrievable and sharing
Advantages of a relational database model
Some important advantages of a relational database model are as follows
Simplicity
The relational data model is simpler than the hierarchical model and
network model.
Data Independence
The implementation of the database will not be affected by changes made
in the logical design of the database or changes made in the database
software.
Structural Independence
Structural independence exists when the structure of the database can be
changed without affecting DBMS's ability to access the data. The relational
database model does not use a navigational data access system. The data
access paths are irrelevant to relational database designers, programmers,
and end-users. Any change in relational database structure does not affect
data access in any way. It makes the relational databases model structure
independent.
Data Consistency and Accuracy
Since multiple level checks and constraints are built-in, data is accurate and
consistent.
Easy data retrievable and sharing
Data can be easily extracted from one or multiple Relations. Data can also
be easily shared among users.
Functions of DBMS
Data Processing
User-accessible Catalog
Transaction Support
Concurrency support
Recovery services
Data Communication Support
Integrity Services
Authentication Services
1. Data processing
The most important function Of DBMS is data processing. It includes the
creation, storage, and arrangement of data in database. DBMS also
provides access to data stored in a database.
2. User-accessible catalog
A catalog is an object that contains all information about the database. It
includes schema information, user information, user rights, etc. The
administrative user of the database should be able to access the catalog.
It is an important function of DBMS to provide access to the catalog.
3. Transactions Support
A collection of All steps to complete a process is known as a transaction. DBMS
should support transactions. It must ensure that all steps in a transaction are
executed successfully or none of them is executed. This facility ensures that
the database is always in a consistent state even if a transaction fails due to
some problem such as a system crash or power failure etc.
4. Concurrency Support
A situation in which two or more persons access the same record
simultaneously is called concurrency. This situation may result in loss of
information or loss of integrity. DBMS must provide the facility of concurrency. It
enables multiple users to access the same record simultaneously without any
loss of data.
5. Recovery Services
A DBMS must provide a mechanism to recover a database if it is damaged in
any way it ensures that the database remains in a consistent state. DBMS must
also ensure that data loss during the recovery process is minimum.
6. Data communication support
DBMS must provide data communication support in different ways. It must
be capable of integrating with communication software. The users usually
access the database from workstations. The workstations may be
connected to the host computer or located at distant locations. The
workstation communicates with the host computer over a network. DBMS
receives their request as a communication message.
7. Integrity services
Integrity means accuracy and reliability of data. It is maintained by
applying particular constraints on the data. Data integrity rules ensure the
correctness and consistency of stored data. DBMS must provide integrity
services to maintain the integrity of data. It must protect the database from
false and incorrect data.
8. Authorization services
DBMS must ensure The security of the database through Authorization
services. It should ensure that only authorized users can access the
database. The authorization is normally implemented with the help of a
password etc. DBMS must also provide different levels of authorization. For
example, one user must be authorized to access the full database but
another user may be allowed to access only a part of the database.
Database Development Process
General Strategies
1. Top-Down Development
2. Bottom-Up Development
General Strategies
A database application is developed to satisfy the requirement of the user.
It is very important to understand these requirements in detail. The
application should be developed according to the expectation of the user.
Different techniques are used to find the requirements and needs of users
such as interviews. The requirement should be defined as early as possible
in the development process.
There are two strategies to develop a database application:
1. Top-Down Development
2. Bottom-Up Development
1. Top-Down Development
This strategy starts with the general issues and moves to specific issues.
First of all, it is important to find out the general goals of the organization
and the means by which these goes can be achieved. The requirements are
defined that must be satisfied to reach these goals. This study gives an
abstract data model of the system.
The user moves to detailed and specific issues using this model. This
process identifies a particular database and related application to be
developed. Finally, the High-level data model is transferred into low- level
models. All identified systems, databases, and applications are developed.
2. Bottom-Up Development
This strategy starts with a specific issue and moves to a general issue. The
user begins by identifying a specific system to be developed the
requirements are found by studying the existing system and by
interviewing different users.
System Development Life Cycle
I. Preliminary Investigation
II. Requirement Analysis
III. System Design
IV. Software Development
V. System Testing
VI. System Implementation
VII. System Maintenance
System Development Life Cycle (SDLC)
System development lifecycle is a conventional way to develop an
information system. It consists of many steps and involves different
persons. The steps of SDLC are as follows:
1) Preliminary Investigation
Preliminary investigation is the first phase of SDLC. Its main objective is to
identify deficiencies and requirements in the user's current environment. An
important result of the preliminary investigation is whether the system to
be developed is feasible or not.
Feasibility is determined by the following parameter:
 Whether current technical resources or technology is available in the
developer’s organization or in the market that is capable of handling the
user's requirement.
 Whether the system is cost-effective economically or financially.
 How effectively the user will operate this software once installed.
 The feasibility study report is produced at the end of this phase. A final
acceptance of the proposed system is taken from the user. The next phase
is shared when the proposed system is accepted.
2) Requirement Analysis
In this phase, the current business system is studied in detail to find out
how it works and where improvements are required. It includes a detailed
study of various operations performed by the system and their relationship
within and outside the system. The analyst and user work closely during
the complete analysis phase. A detailed document is prepared at the end of
this phase called requirement specification.
System design
The requirement analysis is provided the requirements of the system.
The next phase is to design the new system to satisfy these requirements.
The design field states how a system will meet the requirements identified
during systems analysis phase as mentioned in the requirement
specifications.
Software Development:
In this phase , actual coding of the programs is done. Programs are tested
using dummy data. Programmers also prepare the documentation related
to programs. The documentation explains how and why a certain procedure
was coded in a specific way.
System Testing:
After the programs are tested individually, the system is tested as a whole.
During system testing phase, all software modules are integrated and
tested to ensure that they are running according to the specification.
Special test data is prepared as input for processing. The results are
examined to ensure that they are correct.
System implementation:
In this phase, the developed system is installed for use. The following
activities are performed before the actual usage of the system:
User Personnel are trained to operate the system.
The data files needed by the system are constructed.
System maintenance:
The system may become less useful if any change occurs in the user
invite. The software may be modified for its effective use. The activity
of the system maintenance may vary depending on the scale of
modifications and enhancements.
Thank
s