Definition – Data

Data is raw, unorganized facts that need to be processed.

Data can be something simple and seemingly random and
useless until it is organized.
Example: Each student's test score is one piece of data.
"Data" comes from a singular Latin word, datum, which
originally meant "something given."
Over time "data" has become the plural of datum.
 Definition–Information
When data is processed, organized, structured or
presented in a given context so as to make it useful, it is
called information.
Information is the processed data on which decisions and
actions are based.
Example: The average score of a class or of the entire
school is information that can be derived from the given
data.
 Definition – DBMS
A database is an organized collection of data. It is the
collection of tables, queries, reports, views and other
objects.

 Database contains information's relevant to enterprise.

DBMS(Database Management System) is a collection

of interrelated data and a set of programs to access those
data.

It provides a way to store and retrieve database

information in convenient and efficient manner.
Definition – DBMS Contd…
Management of data involves:
Defining structures for storage of information
Providing mechanisms for the manipulation of
information.
Ensure the safety of the information stored, despite system
crashes or attempts at unauthorized access.
 If data are to be shared among several users, the system
must avoid possible anomalous results.

Well-known DBMSs include MySQL, PostgreSQL,

Microsoft SQL Server, Oracle, Sybase and IBM DB2.
 Application of DBMS
Banking
Airlines
Universities
Credit card transactions
Telecommunication
Finance
Sales
Manufacturing
Human resources
Purpose of Database Systems File-Processing System

A File processing system is a collection of files and programs

that access/modify these files.
Typically, new files and programs are added over time (by
different programmers) as new information needs to be stored
and new ways to access information are needed.
Disadvantages of File Processing System
Data redundancy and inconsistency
Difficulty in accessing data
Data isolation
Integrity problems – consistency constraint
Atomicity problems – atomic
Concurrent-access anomalies
Security problems – data abstraction
 Advantage of DBMS
 Controlling Data Redundancy
 Sharing of Data
 Data Consistency
 Data Integrity
 Data Security
 Data Independence
 Backup and Recovery Procedures
 Disadvantage of DBMS
 Increased costs
 Management complexity
 Frequent upgrade/replacement cycles
 Database Damage
 View of Data
Major purpose of a database system is to provide users with an
abstract view of the data.

Data Abstraction
Data abstraction is the reduction of
a particular body of data to a
simplified representation of the
whole.

Fig: Three Level of data abstractions

 View of Data Contd…
 Data Abstraction
 Physical level (Low Level )
How data are actually stored
Describe Complex low-level data structure
E.g. index, B-tree, hashing.
 Logical Level(Conceptual Level) (Middle Level )
What data are stored and what relationship exist among
those data
 View Level (External Level) (High Level)
Describe only part of the entire database
E.g. tellers in a bank get a view of customer accounts, but
not of payroll data.
 View of Data Contd…
type instructor= record
ID : char(5);
name : char(20);
deptname : char(20);
salary : numeric(8,2);
end;
This code defines a new record type called instructor with four fields.
At the physical level, an instructor described as a block of
consecutive storage locations. And compiler hide this level of
details from programmers.
At the logical level, each such record inserted by user.
At the view level, computer users see a set of application
programs that hide details of the data types.
 Instances and Schemas
The data stored in the database at any given time is an
Instance of the database
The overall design of the database is called the
database schema.

Name Account No Balance Address

Bob 102 1000 Mumbai

- is an instance of a database with schema (Name, Account No,

John
Balance, Address 301 500 Chennai
 Instances and Schemas
Database systems have schemas at each level of
abstraction:
The physical schema describes the database design at the physical
level
i.e. as a file of records of a particular type
The logical schema describes the database design at the logical
level.
Example: (Name, Account No, Balance, Address)
A database may also have several schema's at the view level,
sometimes called subschemas, that describe different views of the
database.
For example, (Name, Account No) is a subschema of (Name, Account No,
Balance, Address)
Database System Structure
Functions of DBA
Schema Definition.

Storage structure and access method definition.

Schema and physical organization modification.

Granting of authorization for data access.

Routine maintenance.
 Data Models
 Data Model is a collection of conceptual tools for describing
data, data relationships, data semantics, and consistency
constraints.

A data model provides a way to describe the design of a

database at the physical, logical, and view levels.

 Data models define how data is connected to each other and

how they are processed and stored inside the system.
 Types of Data Models
1) Record-based Data Models
The Relational Model
The Network Model
The Hierarchical Model
1) Object-based Data Models
The E-R Model
The Object-Oriented Model
1) Physical Data Models

Note: 1st & 2nd model describe data at the conceptual and view
levels and 3rd at physical level
 Relational Model
The Relational model uses a collection of tables to
represent both data and the relationships among those data.
Tables are also known as relations.
Relation: made up of 2 parts:
Instance: a table, with rows and columns.
#rows =cardinality , #fields = degree / arity
Schema: specifies name of relation, plus name and type of
each column
E.g.: Students( sid: string, name: string, login: string,
age: integer, gpa: real)
Relational Model Contd…
 Network Model
In Network Model data are represented by collections
of records, and relationships among data are represented
by links.
Each record is a collection of fields (attributes), each of
which contains only one data value.
A link is an association between precisely two records
 Hierarchical Model
A Hierarchical Model consists of a collection of
records that are connected to each other through links.
A record is similar to a record in the network model.
Each record is a collection of fields (attributes), each of
which contains only one data value.
A link is an association between precisely two records
 Hierarchical Database Model
The Hierarchical Model mandates that each child
record has only one parent, whereas each parent record
can have one or more child records.

The relationships formed in the tree-structure diagram

must be such that only one-to-many or one-to-one
relationships exist between a parent and a child.

In order to retrieve data from a hierarchical database the

whole tree needs to be traversed starting from the root
node.
Entity-Relationship(E-R) Model
The entity-relationship (E-R) data model uses a collection of
basic objects, called entities, and relationships among these
objects.

E-R Diagram is a visual representation of data, that describes

how data is related to each other.

 Entity − An entity in an ER Model is a “thing” or “object ” in

the real-world having properties called attributes.
 E-R Model Contd…

An Entity set is a set of entities of the same type that share the
same properties, or attributes.

Attributes- Entities are represented by means of their

properties, called attributes. All attributes have values.
For example, a student entity may have name, class, and age as attributes.

Every attribute is defined by its set of values called domain.

For example, a student's name cannot be a numeric value. It has to be
alphabetic. A student's age cannot be negative, etc.
 E-R Model Contd…

E-R Model is based on −

Entities and their attributes.

Relationships among entities.
 E-R Model Contd…

Types of Attributes

 Simple attribute
 Composite attribute
 Derived attribute
 Single-valued attribute
 Multivalued attribute
 E-R Model Contd…
Simple attribute − Simple attributes consist of atomic values,
which cannot be divided further.
For example, a student's phone number is an atomic value of 10
digits

Composite attribute − Composite attributes are made of more

than one simple attribute.
For example, a student's complete name may have first_name and
last_name.

Derived attribute − Derived attributes are the attributes that do

not exist in the physical database, but their values are derived
from other attributes present in the database.
For another example, age can be derived from data_of_birth.
 E-R Model Contd…
Single-valued attribute − Single-valued attributes contain
single value.
For example − Social_Security_Number.

Multivalued attribute − Multivalued attributes may contain

more than one values.
For example, a person can have more than one phone number,
email_address, etc
 E-R Model Contd…

Relationship − The logical association among entities is called

relationship.

Relationship Set- A set of relationships of similar type is

called a relationship set. Like entities, a relationship too can
have attributes. These attributes are called descriptive
attributes.
 E-R Model Contd…
Mapping cardinalities −
Cardinality defines the number of entities in one entity set,
which can be associated with the number of entities of other
set via relationship set.


one to one

one to many

many to one

many to many
 E-R Model Contd…
One-to-one - One entity from entity set A can be associated
with at most one entity of entity set B and vice versa.
 E-R Model Contd…
One-to-many − One entity from entity set A can be associated
with more than one entities of entity set B however an entity
from entity set B, can be associated with at most one entity.
 E-R Model Contd…
Many-to-one − More than one entities from entity set A can be
associated with at most one entity of entity set B, however an
entity from entity set B can be associated with more than one
entity from entity set A.
 E-R Model Contd…
Many-to-many − One entity from A can be associated with more
than one entity from B and vice versa.
 E-R Model Contd…
Cardinality Constraints
We express cardinality constraints by drawing either a directed
line (), signifying “one,” or an undirected line (—), signifying
“many,” between the relationship set and the entity set.
E.g.: One-to-one relationship:
A customer is associated with at most one loan via the
relationship borrower
A loan is associated with at most one customer via borrower
 E-R Model Contd…
Cardinality Constraints
In the one-to-many relationship a loan is associated with at
most one customer via borrower, a customer is associated with
several (including 0) loans via borrower
 E-R Model Contd…
Cardinality Constraints
In a many-to-one relationship a loan is associated with several
(including 0) customers via borrower, a customer is associated
with at most one loan via borrower
 E-R Model Contd…
Cardinality Constraints
A customer is associated with several (possibly 0) loans via
borrower
A loan is associated with several (possibly 0) customers via
borrower
 E-R Model Contd…
Alternative Notation for Cardinality Limits
Cardinality limits can also express participation constraints
E-R Model Contd…
 E-R Model Contd…

Total Participation − Each entity is involved in the

relationship. Total participation is represented by double
lines.
Partial participation − Not all entities are involved in
the relationship. Partial participation is represented by
single lines.
E-R Model Contd…
 Keys
Key – A key for an entity is a set of attributes that suffice to
distinguish entities from each other or uniquely define that
entity.

Types -
Superkey
Candidate Key
Primary Key
Foreign Key
 Superkey
 A superkey is a set of one or more attributes that, taken collectively,
allow us to uniquely identify a tuple in the relation.
 Superkey Example

SuperKey- {Emp_ID}
{Emp_ID,Emp_Name},{Emp_ID,DOB},
{Emp_Name,DOB},
{Emp_Name, DOB, Gender},...
 Candidate Key
Candidate key is nothing but minimal super keys for which no proper
subset is a super key.

SuperKey- {Emp_ID}
{Emp_ID,Emp_Name},{Emp_ID,DOB},
{Emp_Name,DOB},
{Emp_Name, DOB, Gender},...

Candidate Key – {Emp_ID}

{Emp_Name, DOB}
 Primary Key
The term primary key is used to denote a candidate key
that is chosen by database designer as principal means of
identifying entities within an entity set.

Primary key entity in the set cannot have the same value
for two or more tuples i.e. unique and it cannot be null.

Primary Key - {Emp_ID}

 Foreign Key
A relation, say r1, may include among its attributes the
primary key of another relation, say r2. This attribute is
called a foreign key from r1, referencing r2.

 r1 - referencing relation
 r2- referenced relation
 Foreign Key Example

Referencing relation –Instructor

Referenced relation –Department

Foreign Key - dept_name

 E-R Model Contd…
Weak Entity Sets
An entity set that does not have a primary key is referred to as a
weak entity set.
The existence of a weak entity set depends on the existence of a
identifying entity set

The discriminator (or partial key) of a weak entity set is the set
of attributes that distinguishes among all the entities of a weak
entity set.
The primary key of a weak entity set is formed by the primary
key of the strong entity set on which the weak entity set is
existence dependent, plus the weak entity set’s discriminator.
 E-R Model Contd…
Weak Entity Sets
 We depict a weak entity set by double rectangles.
 We underline the discriminator of a weak entity set with a dashed line.
 payment-number – discriminator of the payment entity set
 Primary key for payment – (loan-number, payment-number)
Extended E-R Diagram(EER)
An enhanced entity-relationship model, also known as an
extended entity-relationship model, is a type of database
diagram that's similar to regular ERDs.
Enhanced ERDs are high-level conceptual models that
accurately represent the requirements of complex databases.
In addition to E-R diagram, EERDs include:

Subtypes and supertypes (sometimes known as subclasses and

superclasses)
Attribute and relationship inheritance
Specialization or generalization
Aggeregation
Extended E-R Diagram (EER) Contd…

Subclasses and Super-classes

 An entity type may have additional meaningful sub-groupings of
its entities
 Example: EMPLOYEE may be further grouped into
SECRETARY, ENGINEER, MANAGER, TECHNICIAN,
SALARIED_EMPLOYEE, HOURLY_EMPLOYEE,…
 Each of these groupings is a subset of EMPLOYEE entities
 Each is called a subclass of EMPLOYEE
 EMPLOYEE is the superclass for each of these subclasses
 These are called super-class/subclass relationships.
Extended E-R Diagram (EER) Contd…

 Example:
EMPLOYEE/SECRETARY,
EMPLOYEE/TECHNICIAN

 These are also called IS-A relationships

(SECRETARY IS-A EMPLOYEE, TECHNICIAN IS-A EMPLOYEE, …).
Extended E-R Diagram (EER) Contd…

Specialization
 Top-down design process; we designate subgrouping within an
entity set that are distinctive from other entities in the set.

 These subgrouping become lower-level entity sets that have

attributes or participate in relationships that do not apply to the
higher-level entity set.

 Depicted by a triangle component labeled ISA (E.g. customer “is

a” person).

 Attribute inheritance – a lower-level entity set inherits all the

attributes and relationship participation of the higher-level entity
set to which it is linked.
Extended E-R Diagram (EER) Contd…

Specialization
Example
Extended E-R Diagram (EER) Contd…

Generalization
 A bottom-up design process – combine a number of entity sets that
share the same features into a higher-level entity set.

 Specialization and generalization are simple inversions of each

other; they are represented in an E-R diagram in the same way.

 The terms specialization and generalization are used

interchangeably.
Extended E-R Diagram (EER) Contd…

Aggregation
 One limitation of the E-R model is that it cannot express relationships among
relationships.
 Consider the ternary relationship works-on:
Extended E-R Diagram (EER) Contd…

Aggregation- Aggregation is an abstraction through which

relationships are treated as higher-level entities.
 Without introducing redundancy, the following diagram represents:
 An employee works on a particular job at a particular branch
 An employee, branch, job combination may have an associated manager
E-R Diagram for a University Database

classroom(building, room number, capacity)

department(dept name, building, budget)
course(course id, title, dept name, credits)
instructor(ID, name, dept name, salary)
section(course id, sec id, semester, year, building, room
number, time slot id)
teaches(ID, course id, sec id, semester, year)
student(ID, name, dept name, tot cred)
takes(ID, course id, sec id, semester, year, grade)
advisor(s ID, i ID)
time slot(time slot id, day, start time, end time)
prereq(course id, prereq id)
E-R Diagram for a University Database
E-R Diagram for a Banking Enterprise
Converting ER diagram into tables

Strong Entity Set – Individual table for each entity set with all
attributes.


Attributes -

Simple/Single valued – column in table

Composite – represented as individual columns in table

Multi-valued – separate table for attribute with two fields
(Primary key of table and Multivalued attribute)


Weak Entity Set – Separate table for weak entity with all
attributes along with primary key of identifying entity.
Converting EER diagram into tables

Relationship set – Separate table consist of primary key of
all entities participating in relation.


Specialization/Generalization – Separate table for higher
level and lower level entity set.
eg. person(ID,name,street,city)
employee(ID,salary)
student(ID, marks)


Aggregation – Consist of all primary keys for aggregate
relationship and entity.