Ray optics

(OR)
Geometrical Optics
1. Plane mirror
2. Spherical mirror
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Introduction
• Ray optics: Ray optics treats propagation of light in terms of rays and is valid only if the size
of the obstacle is much greater than the wavelength of light. It is only study of geometrical
properties of propagation of light.
• Beam of light: A beam is a collection of light rays coming from a source of light.

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Parallel beam of light
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Divergent Beam of light Convergent beam of light

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Some important terms
• Object: The point where the rays meet (or appear to meet) before refraction or reflection is
called object. [Intersection of incident rays]
• Image: The point where the rays meet (or appear to meet) after refraction or reflection is
called image. [Intersection of reflected or refracted rays]
• Real Object: If the rays actually meet before reflection or refraction.

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• Virtual Object: If the rays appear to meet before reflection or refraction

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• Real image: If the rays actually meet after reflection or refraction.

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• Virtual Image: If the rays appear to meet after reflection or refraction.

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Reflection of light
Laws of reflection:
1. Angle of incidence is equal to angle of reflection:
2. Incident ray, reflected ray and normal, all lie in the same plane.

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Note: Law of reflection is applicable for all surfaces, flat, curve or non uniform.

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Types of reflection:
1. Regular reflection: When parallel incident rays
falls on a smooth surface, reflected rays are also
parallel and thus produce bright and focused
image. [All normal are parallel to each other]

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2. Irregular or diffused reflection: When parallel

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incident rays falls on a irregular rough surface,
rays are reflected in random direction. [All

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normal are not parallel to each other]
Effects:
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a. There is no perfect darkness in room.

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b. uniform illumination of objects

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c. All objects around us are visible to us.
Plane Mirror
Image formation by plane mirror:

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Properties of image formation by plane
mirror
1. Object distance is equal to image distance.
2. Image has same size as that of the object.
3. Image is virtual and erect.
4. Real object produces virtual image & virtual object produces real image
5.
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Images are laterally inverted

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Problems on plane mirror
1. A mirror is inclined at an angle 45⁰ with +x axis. The mirror starts from
origin. Find the image of a point placed at .

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2. A plane mirror is placed just beside a wall clock. Find the time shown by the
clock if the actual clock shows
a. 3:00:00
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3. DCP Page: 62 Q10
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DCP Page: 61 Q2

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Field of view
The region between extreme reflected rays (reflected from the end points of the mirror) is
called the field of view. To see the image of object, eye should lie in this region, as all
reflected rays lie in this region.
Note: Irrespective of the size of mirror, image will be formed if the object is placed in front of
mirror. Although field of view can change if size of mirror changes.

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Problems

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Minimum length of plane mirror to see one’s full height:
For a man of height H, the length of mirror required is of height H/2
A is the forehead of the person.
E is the foot of the person.
C are the eyes of the person

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Note: The size of the mirror required

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will remain H/2 even if the mirror is

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moved away from the object.
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• Q. A person is standing midway between a mirror and a wall. The wall has a
height of H, find the minimum size of mirror required to completely see the
image of wall.
Ans: H/3

• DCP page 62, Q 8

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Relation between velocity of image
and object

On solving this, we get

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Note: all velocities are perpendicular to the mirror.

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Use proper sign convention
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HW: DCP page 61: Q1, 11, 13 DCP page 64, Q3
Deviation produced by plane mirror
Deviation =

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Q. Find the deviation produced by the mirror
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Deviation produced by two mirrors
Total deviation produced by the mirrors
(Clockwise)
Or (anti clockwise)
Note: If the rays only have two reflection then

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total deviation is independent of the angle of

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incidence.

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1. Find the angle between two plane mirrors such that a ray of light incident on the first

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mirror and parallel to the second mirror is reflected from the second mirror, parallel to
the first mirror.

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2. Rays of light are incident on a plane mirror at 40°. At what angle with the first should a

the first mirror.

3. DCP page 58, Q6
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second mirror be placed such that the rays emerge from the second mirror parallel to

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Rotation of mirror
If a mirror is rotated by angle θ, then the
reflected ray is deviated by angle 2θ in the
same sense.
If both mirror and incident ray rotate then

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Q. By what angle, the mirror must be rotated

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so that the reflected ray becomes vertical

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Problems on rotation of mirror
1. A mirror is placed at the centre of a sphere and it is rotating
with an angular speed ω. Incident light falls on the mirror at
the centre of the sphere. Find out the linear speed of the light
spot on the sphere?
2. In the previous question instead of spherical wall there is a

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vertical wall at a perpendicular distance d from the point &
where the light is incident

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3. DCP page 62, Q 7

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Images formed by two inclined plane
mirrors
If rays after getting reflected from one mirror strike second mirror, the image formed by first
mirror will function as an object for second mirror, and this process will continue for every
successive reflection.

Q. Consider two mirror placed perpendicular to each other. Find the position of all the images

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formed due to the two mirrors.

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Trick for number of images due to
inclined mirrors
Θ is the angle between the mirrors.
Let
1. If n = even
then number of images = n-1
2. If n = odd, then
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a. number of images = n (if object is placed at unsymmetrical position)
b. number of images = n-1 (if object is placed at symmetrical position)
3. If n ≠ integer
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Then number of images = nearest even integer
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Images formed by two plane mirrors
Consider two plane mirrors placed at a separation of d between them. An object
is placed between the two mirrors. Find the position of all the images

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DCP page 61 Q 4 Pa
Vector form of law of reflection
Consider unit vector along incident ray =
unit vector along reflected ray =
unit vector along normal =

Derive relation between them

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 Reflection through spherical surfaces
Some important terms:
1. Spherical mirrors: A spherical mirror is a part of a hollow sphere or a spherical surface
2. Pole or Vertex of the mirror: The geometrical center of the spherical mirror is called the pole or vertex of the
mirror.
3. Centre of curvature: The centre C of the sphere of which the spherical mirror is a part, is the centre of
curvature of the mirror.
4.

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Radius of curvature: It is the radius R of which the mirror is a part of.
5.
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Principal axis: The line CP joining the COC and pole of the mirror.

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6. Focus: If a parallel beam of rays, parallel to the principal
axis and close to it, is incident on a spherical mirror; the
reflected rays
a. converge to a point F (in case of a concave mirror) or
b. appear to diverge from a point F (in case of a convex
mirror) on the principal axis.
The point F is called the focus of the spherical mirror.
7. Focal length: Distance between pole and focus is called
focal length
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8. Aperture: The line joining the end points of the spherical
mirror is called aperture. It gives the size of the mirror.

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Relation between f and R
Types of rays:
1. Paraxial rays: The rays which are parallel and very close to principal axis.
2. Marginal rays: The rays which are parallel and far away from principal axis.
Note: All formulas in the syllabus are defined for paraxial rays only.

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Focal length for
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3. Marginal rays:

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4. Paraxial rays ()

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Rules for image formation
1. A ray passing parallel to the principal axis after reflection from the
spherical mirror passes or appears to pass through its focus.

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2. A ray passing through or directed towards focus after reflection from the
spherical mirror becomes parallel to the principal axis (by the principle of
reversibility of light).

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3. A ray passing through or directed towards the centre of curvature, after
reflection from the spherical mirror, retraces its path

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4. A ray incident on pole is reflected symmetrically following law of
reflection.

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Cases of image formation for Concave mirror (Real object)
1. Object at infinity 2. Object beyond C 3. Object at C

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4. Between F and C
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Properties of image for concave mirror

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For real object

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• As object approaches the mirror, the image close far away and vice versa (For real
image)
• As object approaches mirror, the image will also approach mirror (for virtual image)
Cases of image formation for Convex mirror (Real object)
1. Object at infinity
Properties:
a. Image formed at focal plane
b. Highly diminished
c. Virtual and erect.

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2. Object at finite distance (Object between infinity and P)
Properties:
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a. Image between P and F
b. Diminished
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c. Virtual and erect
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Properties of image formation by convex
mirror
Important points (for real objects only)
• Image will always be virtual
• As object approaches mirror, the image will also approach mirror.

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• Farther the image, bigger is its size

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Sign convention for optical
instruments

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Mirror formula for spherical mirrors
NCERT Proof:

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Use proper sign convention:
Magnification:
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[Use sign convention]

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Q. An object of 2mm size is placed at 30cm in front of a concave mirror of
f=20cm. Find the position of image and size of image.
Some problems on mirror formula
1. An object of 2mm size is placed at 30cm in front of a concave mirror of
f=20cm. Find the position of image and size of image.
2. A convex mirror has focal length of 20cm. An object of 8mm height is placed
a distance of 40cm away from it. Find the position and size of the image.

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3. A concave mirror has a focal length 20cm. find the position of image so that
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we get image of size half of that of object

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4. Solve the previous question for image size double that of object.
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5. A concave mirror has focal length 20cm. Find the position of object to get

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image size double half of that of object.

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6. Solve HCV questions.
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Graph of u vs v and vs for spherical
mirrors

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Areal magnification

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Q. A ring of radius 2mm is placed 30cm away from a concave mirror of focus

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20cm. The axis of the ring is aligned with the principal axis of the mirror. Find

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the area of the image of the ring.
Linear magnification for Short object
placed on principal axis
Differentiating both sides, we get

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The above formula is only applicable for short objects.
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For large objects,
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Problems
1. A object of length 4mm is placed at a distance of 15cm from a concave mirror
of focal length 10cm. Find the position of image and its size.

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Velocity of image and object.
Case 1: Velocity along principal axis only

Differentiating both sides with time, we get

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For real objects and real image,
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The minus indicates that as object approaches
mirror, the image moves away from mirror.

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Case 2: if velocity is perpendicular to
principal axis

Differentiating both sides with time, we

get

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Case 3: If velocity is oblique with principal
axis

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Cross-multiply and differentiate.
Problems
DCP page 47, Q 6
page 51, Q 10, 11
1. Find the velocity of the image

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Cutting of mirrors
If the position of the mirror is not changed after cutting, then the position of
image doesn’t change.

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Cutting of mirrors (change of position)
When position of mirror is changed, their principal axis changes, thus image
produced by mirror also changes.

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Combination of mirrors
1. Find the secondary image after subsequent reflection.

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Refraction
When a ray of light travels from one medium to other medium with or
without bending, the phenomenon is called refraction of light.

Absolute Refractive index: It is the measure of the ability of a medium to

slow down light. It is the factor by which light slows down in a medium w.r.t
vacuum.

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Example: Refractive index of air or vacuum is 1

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Glass is 3/2 or 1.5

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Relative refractive index
Refractive index of one medium w.r.t another medium.
Refractive index of medium 2 w.r.t medium 1 is

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Since light doesn’t looses any energy during refraction, the

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frequency of light remains same.
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Conclusion:
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Problems:
1. Find the speed of light in
a. water b. Glass
2. Light looses 80% of its speed after entering a medium. Find the refractive
index of that medium.
3. A light of 600nm wavelength in air enters a medium of r.i = 2.4. Find the

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wavelength and speed of light in the medium.

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4. Find the refractive index of glass w.r.t water. A ray of light has 720nm
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wavelength in water. Find its wavelength in glass.

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Snell’s law of refraction
1. The incident ray, the refracted ray and the
normal to the refracting surface at the point of
incidence, all lie in the same plane.
2. The ratio of sine of the angle of incidence to the
sine of the angle of refraction is a constant for

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any two given media and for light of given color.

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Note:

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• Light bends towards the normal in optically denser medium.

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• Light bends away from normal in optically rarer medium.

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• Optical density should not be confused with mass density,

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which is mass per unit volume. It is possible that mass density
of an optically denser medium may be less than that of an
optically rarer medium. For example, turpentine and water.
Mass density of turpentine is less than that of water but its optical
density is higher.
Refraction through glass slab
Prove that angle of incidence and angle of
emergence is same.

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Conclusion: If medium is same, then the angle will always be same, even if
multiple medium come in between.
Refraction at multiple surfaces

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Lateral shift in glass slab
It is the shift in the path of the emergent ray w.r.t incident ray

Lateral shift increases with

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1. Higher refractive index of medium

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2. Higher value of t

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3. Larger angle of incidence

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Q. A ray of light is incident at an angle of 60° on one
face of a rectangular glass slab of thickness mm and
refractive index . Calculate the lateral shift produced
in mm.
Real depth and apparent depth
Object will appear closer to the interface

Shift

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Where μ is refractive index of incident medium

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w.r.t other medium.

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For multiple slabs, always use shift formula
(with sign convention)
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Problems on shift

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Shift due to a glass slab
Consider a glass slab of thickness t having r.i μ. A
point object is placed at a distance x away from
the slab.
Total shift can be calculated by considering two
mediums:

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1. Glass slab (r.i = μ) of thickness t

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2. Air slab (r.i = 1) of thickness x

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And then finding the shift for them

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Shift
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1. The concave mirror has focal length = 20cm. Find the value of x for
autocollimation.
Note: autocollimation means image is formed at object itself.

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Total internal reflection
When light travels from an optically denser
medium to a rarer medium at the interface, it is
partly reflected back into the same medium and
partly refracted to the second medium. This
reflection is called the internal reflection.

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Critical angle: It is the angle of incidence at

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denser medium for which angle of refraction at

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rarer medium is 90⁰.

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Condition for TIR:

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1. Light must go from denser to rarer medium
2. Angle of incidence must be greater than
critical angle.
Problems on TIR
1. A medium has r.i = 2. Find the critical angle of this medium if the
medium is kept adjacent to air.
2. Two medium of r.i and 2 are kept together. Find the critical angle for
the pair of media. From which medium the light should be incident?

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3. A light source is kept at a depth h inside water of r.i = μ. Find the area

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from which light is coming out.

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4. Find the minimum value of angle of incidence on face AB, so that TIR

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can take place in side BC
5. DCP Page 122 Q31
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Graph between δ and i
The possible value of angle of incidence are .

Light will undergo refraction from (critical angle).

δ increases with i ( graph is a curve)
Light will undergo TIR from .
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Thus δ decreases linearly with i
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Application of TIR
Prism: Prism can use TIR and ben light by 90⁰ or 180⁰ depending on use. This
bending is used in periscope and binoculars.

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Note: Glass has μ=1.5,
Therefore, its C = 42⁰
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Thus, light incident at 45⁰, will
undergo TIR.
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Optical Fiber: Optical fiber is a type of cable made from high quality
composite glass or quartz that can transmit data as light signals. These
fibers are extremely thin, often thinner than a human hair, and they use the
principle of total internal reflection to guide light along their length, even
through curves..
Each fiber consists of a core and cladding. The refractive index of the
material of the core is higher than that of the cladding. When light is

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incident on core and clad interface in such a way that incident angle is

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more than critical angle, then light undergoes TIR and then keeps reflecting

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till it reaches the end of fiber.

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Application of Optical fiber
1. Telecommunication: Electrical signals are converted to optical signals
and then transmitted via optical fibers.
2. Endoscopy (medical): optical fibers can be used to see images of inside
of human bodies.

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3. Decoration: Decorative lamp have fine plastic fibers with their free ends

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forming a fountain like structure. The other end of the fibers is fixed

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over an electric lamp. When the lamp is switched on, the light travels

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from the bottom of each fiber and appears at the tip of its free end as a

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dot of light

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Note: Silica glass optical fiber have a transmission efficiency of 95% over a
distance of 1km.
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Refraction at spherical surfaces
Suppose angle made by the object, image and COC with
principal axis is α, β and γ respectively.

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Use proper sign convention

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Magnification: [Not important]
Problems
1. Find the final image position for the diagram.

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2. A convex refracting surface of R=20cm is made of glass. Light is incident on

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it from air. Find the position of image if position of object is

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a. infinity b. 20cm in front of the interface.

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3. A glass sphere has radius 10cm. A dot is placed at a distance of 2cm from
the center of the sphere. Find the position of the dot as observed from the
b. farthest side
Some good problems:
1. Find the position where the parallel rays finally meet

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2. Find the velocity of the image from the above diagram

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3. Find the value of x, so that the image is formed at object itself.
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Lens
A lens is a transparent medium bounded by two refracting surfaces such
that at least one of the refracting surfaces is curved.
Types of lens:
Convex lens: These lens are thicker in middle and thinner at edges.
Concave lens: These lens are thinner at middle and thicker at edges.

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Lens makers formula
Consider a thin convex lens having radius of curvature and having refractive
index and refractive index of surrounding medium is . Suppose a point object is
placed at a distance u from the lens, due to which final image is formed at a
distance v from the lens.

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The above ray diagram can be broken
into two parts
For 1st refraction:

For 2nd refraction

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On adding the above two equation we
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get

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Final formula:

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convex and concave lens.
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Note: Sign of radius and for

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Cases for lens makers formula
1. Refractive index of liquid is less than that of lenses material

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2. Refractive index of liquid is equal to that of lenses material

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3. Refractive index of liquid is greater than that of lenses material

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Problems on lens makers formula
1. Find the focal length of a glass bi convex lens of radius of curvature 20cm and 30
cm respectively.
2. Find the focal length of a glass bi concave lens of radius of curvature 20cm and 30
cm respectively.

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3. Solve the above question for concavo convex and convexo concave lens.

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4. If the lens of Q 1 is placed in medium having refractive index μ, find the focus

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length of lens if μ is equal to
a. 4/3
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b. 1.5 c. 2.5

kept in water. R
5. A glass lens has focal length 20cm when kept in air, find its focal length when it is

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6. An equi-biconvex lens has focal length 20cm. Find its new focal length if the lens is

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cut into half along its aperture.
7. Is convex lens always converging in nature? If no then explain the condition when
convex lens is diverging in nature.
Focus in lens
1st focus: The first focus is the point where light rays that converge to the focal point
(before passing through the lens) emerge parallel to the principal axis after passing
through the lens.
• In a convex lens, if you place an object at the second focus, the light rays from that
object will emerge parallel to each other.

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• In a concave lens, rays directed towards the second focus will emerge parallel after
passing through the lens.

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2nd focus: The 2nd focus, or focal point, is the point on the principal axis where
light rays parallel to the principal axis converge (in a converging lens) or appear
to diverge from (in a diverging lens) after passing through the lens.
• For a convex lens (converging), rays coming from infinity and parallel to the
principal axis converge to this point on the other side of the lens.
F = +ve for converging lens

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• For a concave lens (diverging), parallel rays appear to diverge from this point

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on the same side of the lens.

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F = -ve for diverging lens.

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Rules for image formation for lens
x

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 Cases of image formation for convex
lens
Object at infinity Object beyond 2f Object at 2f

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Object between f and 2f
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Object at f Object between pole and f

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Properties of image for convex lens

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Cases of image formation for concave
lens
Object at infinity Object at finite distance

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Lens formula
Consider a object of height h placed at a distance u from a convex lens. Its
image is formed at a distance v of height h’.

Magnification:

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Problems from HCV page 415
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Q 58, 57, 56, 59, 60
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Graph of u vs v and vs for spherical mirrors

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Linear magnification for Short object
placed on principal axis
Differentiating both sides, we get

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The above formula is only applicable for short objects.
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For large objects,
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Velocity of image and object for
spherical lens
Case 1: Velocity along principal axis only

Differentiating both sides with time, we get

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Note: here and are measured w.r.t lens
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Case 2: if velocity is perpendicular to principal axis

Differentiating both sides with time, we get

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Case 3: If velocity is oblique with principal axis

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Cross-multiply and differentiate.

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Problems
Find the position of image and the velocity of the image for the lens

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Power of optical instrument
It is the ability of an optical instrument to bend or deviate the light.
• Higher the bending, higher is the power.
• If the instrument converges light then its power is positive.

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• If the instrument diverges light then its power is negative.

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1. Power of Lens:
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2. Power of mirror: R l
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SI unit of power is dioptre (take focus in meters)
Combination of thin lenses in contact
Consider two thin lenses in contact.
For first lens:

The image of first lens acts as object for

2nd lens

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Adding the above two equations

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Note: The focal length of each lens is taken w.r.t to surrounding medium
Resultant Power of the combination:
Total magnification produced is product of magnification due to individual lenses
Problems
1. Two convex lens of focal length 30cm and 60cm are paired together. Find the
equivalent focal length of the combination.
2. A convex and a concave lens of focal length 30cm and 60cm are paired
together. Find the equivalent focal length of the combination.

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3. Find the focal length of the system in which water lens is surrounded by glass
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lens if the surrounding medium is air.

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Cutting of lens
Perpendicular to principal axis (Power of lens will change)

Q. An equi bi convex lens of power P is cut perpendicular to

principal axis as shown. Find the power of each cut lens.

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Lens cut parallel to principal axis. (Power of lens will not change)
1. Lens not displaced after cut: number of images will remain 1 and position will
also remain same

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2. Lens displaced after cut: Number of images will change as the object will

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appear to have displaced w.r.t new principal axis of the cut lens

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Q. A convex lens of 10cm focus is cut as shown. Find

P
the distance between the images.
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Silvering of lens (or) Lens and mirror
connected
Consider a convex lens whose one side is silvered. The light will undergo
refraction, reflection and refraction. Since the light is coming back, so the setup
acts as concave mirror.

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•
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All the lenses and mirror should be in contact
• Lens are thin.
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•
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Put appropriate sign in the formula
•
• Pa
If , then the setup acts as convex mirror
If , then the setup acts as concave mirror
• If , then the setup acts as plane mirror
Problems
1. Find the value of x, so that image forms at object itself.
2. HCV part 1 page 415, Q 47

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Prism
A homogeneous solid transparent and
refracting medium bounded by two plane
surfaces inclined at an angle is called a
prism
The angle made by the two inclined surface

p
where light is incident is called apex angle

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Deviation produced by the prism: The angle

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between the emergent ray RS and the direction
of the incident ray PQ is called the angle of
deviation, δ

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Derivation:

P
Problems on prism
1. A prism has apex angle 60⁰. Find the angle of deviation if angle of incidence is
60⁰.

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Angle of minimum deviation
Graph between
Conclusion:
1. As , thus and
2. So as i ,

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3. So as i from min to 90⁰, first then

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4. Deviation is maximum when

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5. Deviation is minimum when
Since , so
u l
Thus, Pa
Applying Snell’s law for first refraction
Deviation due to thin prism:
For thin prism, A and δ are both small angle.
Thus,

Thus,

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Cases for prism
1. Ray will always show TIR at 2nd surface
for this,
So let us consider the here.
If is minimum then is maximum.

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For maximum , i should be maximum = 90⁰
If then

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But,
So,
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Using eq (1)
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This is the condition for always TIR on 2nd surface.
2. Ray always refracts at 2nd surface
For this
For , has to be minimum
For , i has to be minimum,
, thus
But,
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From eq (1)

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3. For
Pa u
This is the condition for always refraction at 2nd surface.

Some rays will be refracted and some will be reflected from 2nd surface based on
the value of i.
Dispersion of light
It is the phenomenon where white light splits into its constituent colors (spectrum)
when it passes through a medium, such as a prism. This happens because different
colors (wavelengths) of light travel at different speeds in the medium, causing them to
refract, or bend, by different amounts.
Cauchy’s Formula:

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Refractive index of a medium depends slightly on

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the wavelength of incident light.

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Thus violet light bends more when passing through a medium as compared to red light.
Note: 1. For any medium, violet colour experiences highest refractive index, thus bends
the highest and travels the slowest
2. In vacuum, all colours have same speed
Dispersion of light through a thin prism

Wavelength of yellow color light is the

average

p
wavelength of the visible light spectrum.

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Therefore, average deviation

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Angular dispersion: It is the angular spread

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of the visible spectrum.

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Note: For a glass slab, there is no angular
spread and thus
Deviation of each color

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Dispersive Power
It is the property of a medium.

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Note: If is not given in the question then

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Dispersive power gives the information about the spreading with respect to

prism.
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bending power of a medium. It is a property of a medium and not a property of

Pa
Q. of a medium is given by 1.50 and 1.60. find the dispersive power of the
medium.
Optical instruments
Devices that help in viewing objects that may be far away, tiny, or not clearly
visible with the naked eye.
Visual angle: Angle subtended by object at eye.
Objects appear bigger if visual angle is large.

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Largest visual angle subtended by an object at eye

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l
If the object is small then,

Pa u
Why optical instruments are required?
We can enlarge objects by bringing them close to the eye, but we cannot see
objects closer than least distance of distinct vision (LDDV).
LDDV for normal eye : 25cm
LDDV for aged people: 100cm
LDDV for kids: 10cm

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Thus, there is a limit to which visual angle can be increased, and thus in order to

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increase this visual angle, we need optical instruments
Microscope increases visual angle

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Magnification of microscope:

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Simple Microscope
It is a convex lens with object placed between
focus and pole. It is as called as magnifying lens.
= visual angle made by the image via
microscope

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= Visual angle made by the object without
microscope when placed at LDDV.

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Thus,
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Case 1: Maximum magnification (Strained eye vision)
Image formed at LDDV.

Now,

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Multiply both sides with D e
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Case 2: Minimum magnification (Relaxed eye vision)
Image is formed at infinity, so the object is
placed at focus.

ep
d e
Thus, range of magnification:
j
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l
Limitation:

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Magnification of simple microscope is less and the
range is also less. (Generally 5-9)
Compound microscope
Objective Lens (O): This lens has a short focal length and is positioned close to the specimen. It
produces a real, inverted, and magnified image of the object. The objective lens usually has high
magnifying power.
Eyepiece Lens (E): The eyepiece, is a convex lens near the viewer’s eye. It has a longer focal length
than the objective lens. It further magnifies the image produced by the objective lens.

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Working:

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It consists of two converging lenses arranged coaxially. The one facing the object

a
is called objective and the one close to eye is called eyepiece. The objective has

R
a smaller aperture and smaller focal length than those of the eyepiece.

l
The specimen is placed between f and 2f of objective lens, the image produced is

Pa u
real, inverted and magnified. This image acts as object for the eye piece. The eye
piece is positioned in such a manner that the image of objective appears
between the pole and focus of the eye piece. The eye piece acts as a simple
microscope and produces a enlarged, virtual image as shown.
The final image is inverted with respect to the specimen
Angle made by object at eye
ep
e
without microscope:

j d
Now, magnification of objective lens

a
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visual angle made by the image via microscope

Angle made by object at eye without microscope:

Magnification of microscope:

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The magnification is negative because the final image is inverted.

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Case 1: Maximum magnification: (Strained eye
vision)
Final image is formed at LDDV.
For eye piece:

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Multiply both sides by D,

u l
Thus,
Pa
Simply put the values from the question and no
need to put sign convention in this formula.
Case 1: Minimum magnification: (relaxed
eye vision)
Final image is formed at LDDV.
For eye piece:

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Multiply both sides by D

u l
Thus, magnification
Pa
Problems
Note: Length of microscope: Distance between the two lenses

1. In a compound microscope, and . An object is kept at a distance of 1.25cm

from objective lens. What is the magnifying power for relaxed eye vision?

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2. In a compound microscope, and . Length of microscope is 15cm. How far from

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the objective lens should an object be placed in order to obtain final image at
D=25cm. Also calculate the maximum magnification.

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3. NCERT exercise 9.26

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Telescope
Telescopes are used to see distant objects like stars, planets clearly.
Astronomical refracting telescope:
Objective Lens: This large, convex lens is at the front of the telescope and
gathers light from distant objects, focusing it to create an image. It has large

p
aperture to maximize the incoming light from distant source.

e e
Eyepiece Lens: Placed near the viewer’s eye, this smaller convex lens magnifies

j d
the focused image produced by the objective lens, making distant objects appear
larger and clearer.
a
R l
Since the rays are coming from infinite, the objective lens produces the inverted

P u
image at focus. This image of objective lens acts as object for eye piece. This is
a
placed between focus and pole of eye piece to produce a virtual magnified
image. The final image is inverted with respect to the object.
Ray diagram for telescope

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Now magnification

p
Magnification is negative because the image is inverted.

e e
a j d
R l
Pa u
Case 1: Maximum magnification(Strained eye vision)
The final image forms at D

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Multiply both sides by

R l
Now

Pa u
Case 2: Minimum magnification
(Relaxed eye vision)
Final image at

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Thus magnification of telescope:

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Note: Length of telescope:
Problems
1. A refracting telescope under normal adjustment (relaxed eye vision) has
M=5. if length of the telescope is 150cm. Find and .
2. . Find the maximum and minimum magnification and the range of length of
telescope.
3. NCERT exercise 9.27

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Limitations of refracting type telescope
To collect large number of rays from distant object, the objective lens is made of
large aperture, the problem with this are:
1. Large sized lens are heavy and are difficult to ensure mechanical support in
them as they can only be supported at their edges.

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2. Spherical aberration: Spherical lens have different focus for marginal and
paraxial rays.

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3. Chromatic aberration: Different colors have different  and thus different
focus.
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Reflecting telescope
Objective convex lens is replaced by objective concave paraboloidal mirror.
Advantages:
1. Spherical aberration: Since the shape is paraboloidal, it can focus even the marginal rays
at a single focus.

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2. Chromatic aberration: Mirrors don’t disperse light into its constituents.

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3. Mechanical support: is much less of a problem since a mirror weighs much less than a
lens of equivalent optical quality, and can be supported over its entire back surface, not
just over its rim.

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Problems:
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Objective mirror focusses light inside the telescope tube. One must have
an eyepiece and the observer right there, obstructing some light.
Cassegrain reflecting telescope
Magnification =

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