Diodes

1
 Semiconductors

Semiconductors
A semiconductor is an element with electrical properties between conductor and
insulator.
Example Silicon,Germanium.
Intrinsic Semiconductors
An Intrinsic semiconductor is a pure semiconductor.
Extrinsic semiconductor
One way to increase conductivity of a semiconductor is by doping. This means adding
impurity atoms to an intrinsic crystal to alter its electrical conductivity. A doped semiconductor
is called an extrinsic semiconductor.
A semiconductor can be doped to have an excess of free electrons or an excess of holes. Based
on this, there are two types of doped semiconductors.
N-Type Semiconductor
P-Type Semiconductor

2
 N-Type Semiconductor

Fig. 1 Antimony impurity n-type material.

The n-type is created by introducing the impurity elements that have five
valence electrons (Pentavalent), such as antimony, arsenic, and phosphorus.

Inserted impurity atom has donated a free electron to the structure.

Diffused impurities with five valence electrons are called donor atoms.
In an n-type material , electron is called the majority carrier and hole is the minority
carrier.
3
 N-Type Semiconductor

• Diffused impurities with five valence electrons are called donor atoms.
• In an n-type material , electrons - majority carrier , hole - minority carrier

4
 P-Type Semiconductor

• The p-type material is formed by doping a pure germanium or silicon

crystal with impurity atoms having three valence electrons. The elements
most frequently used for this purpose are boron, gallium, and indium.

Boron impurity in P type material.

The diffused impurities with three valence electrons are called acceptor
atoms.
In a p-type material the hole is the majority carrier and the electron is the
minority carrier.
5
 The PN Junction
Steady State
Metallurgical
Na Junction Nd

-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ When no external source is
P -
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
n connected to the pn junction,
diffusion and drift balance each
Space Charge other out for both the holes and
ionized Region ionized
acceptors donors electrons
E-Field
_ _
+ +
h+ drift == h+ diffusion e- diffusion == e- drift

Space Charge Region: Also called the depletion region. This region includes the net
positively and negatively charged regions. The space charge region does not have any free
carriers. The width of the space charge region is denoted by W in pn junction formula’s.

Metallurgical Junction: The interface where the p- and n-type materials meet.

Na & Nd: Represent the amount of negative and positive doping in number of carriers per
centimeter cubed. Usually in the range of 1015 to 1020.
11/15/24 6
 Semiconductor Diode

The PN junction diode is formed by joining n- and p-type materials together

Diode symbol

Since the diode is a two-terminal device, the application of a voltage across its
terminals leaves three possibilities:
• No bias (VD = 0 V),
•Forward bias ,
• Reverse bias .

7
 No bias (VD = 0 V)

In pn-junction formation, the free electrons near the junction in the n region begin
to diffuse across the junction into the p region where they combine with holes
near the junction. The result is that n region loses free electrons as they diffuse
into the junction. This creates a layer of positive charges (pentavalent or Donor
ions) near the junction.
As the electrons move across the junction, the p region loses holes as the electrons
and holes combine. The result is that there is a layer of negative charges (trivalent
or acceptor ions) near the junction.
These two layers of positive and negative charges form the depletion region or
depletion layer. The term depletion is due to the fact that near the junction, the
region is depleted of charge carries (free electrons and holes) due to diffusion
across the junction.

8
 No bias (VD = 0 V),

• There exists a potential difference across the depletion layer and is called
barrier potential (V0).
• The barrier potential of a pn junction depends upon the type of
semiconductor material used.
• barrier potential :
For silicon, V0 = 0.7 V ;
For germanium, V0 = 0.3 V

9
 Forward bias

A forward-bias is established by applying the positive potential to the p-type material

and the negative potential to the n-type material as shown in given Figure.
The forward-bias potential VD will pressure electrons in the n-type material and
holes in the p-type material to recombine with the ions near the boundary and
reduce the width of the depletion region
The resulting minority-carrier flow of electrons from the p-type material to the n-type
material (and of holes from the n-type material to the p-type material) has not
changed in magnitude.

10
 VI Characteristics
• As the applied bias increases in magnitude the depletion region will
continue to decrease in width until a flood of electrons can pass through
the junction resulting in an exponential rise in current as shown in the
forward-bias region of the characteristics.
• Cut in voltage- It is the forward voltage at which the current through the
junction starts to increase rapidly.

11
 Temperature effect

When the temperature increases, the cut in voltage decreases. At a constant

current ,the voltage drop decreases by approximately 2 m V for every 1°C
increase in temperature.
The reverse saturation current Is ---- double in magnitude for every 10°C increase
in temperature.

12
 Forward bias

• Current is a function of the external voltage applied to the junction. The theoretical
equation for the current

……………….[1]
•IS is the saturation current, η is the emission coefficient or idealty factor, and V T =
kT /q is the thermal voltage. Where k is the boltzman constant ( 1.38x10 -23 J/K) and q
is the charge of electron.
• At T = 300 K, the thermal voltage has the value V T = 0.0259V.

•Discrete silicon diodes that are not fabricated as part of an integrated circuit have the
value η =2. Silicon diodes that are fabricated as part of an integrated circuit have the
value η =1.
13
 Forward bias

In the forward bias characteristic curve ,the plot of an exponential curve

increases so rapidly ,that it appears to approach an almost vertical line at v = 0.7
V . Let us investigate the change in voltage with current in this region.
For i >> IS , Eq. (1) can be approximated by

14
 Example

For an example , let i2 = 10 i1. At room temperature, we have

Δv = ηVT ln (10) =0.06η.

It follows that the change in voltage necessary to change the current by a
decade is
Δv =.06 V for η = 1
Δv = 0.12V for η = 2.
Thus a small change in voltage causes a large change in current.

15
 Reverse bias
In Reverse bias, the external potential of V volts is applied across the
p-n junction such that the positive terminal is connected to the n-type
material and the negative terminal is connected to the p-type material as
shown in Figure. The number of positive ions in the depletion region of
the n-type material will increase due to the large number of free
electrons drawn to the positive potential of the applied voltage.

16
 Reverse Bias

• The number of negative ions will increase in the p-type

material. The net effect, is a widening of the depletion
region. This widening of the depletion region will
establish barrier for the majority carriers to overcome,
effectively reducing the majority carrier flow to zero.
• The current that exists under reverse-bias conditions is
called the reverse saturation current and is represented
by Is, due to the minority carriers.
• Its value is typically in the nanoampere range for silicon
devices and in the microampere range for germanium.

17
 Diode models
• we usually replace a device or system by its equivalent circuit. An
equivalent circuit of a device (e.g. crystal diode, transistor etc.) is a
combination of electric elements, when connected in a circuit, acts exactly
as does the device when connected in the same circuit.

• Equivalent circuit of a diode

Ideal diode
Constant voltage drop model

18
 Ideal diode
• The diode conducts well in the forward direction and poorly in the reverse
direction. Ideally, a diode acts like a perfect conductor (zero resistance)
when forward Biased and like a perfect insulator (infinite resistance) when
reverse biased
• An ordinary switch has zero resistance when closed and infinite resistance
when open. Therefore, an ideal diode acts like a switch that closes when
forward biased and opens when reverse biased.
• The Ideal diode model treats a forward-biased diode like a closed
switch with a voltage drop of zero volts

19
 Constant voltage drop model
Figure a shows a current versus voltage for Constant voltage drop model.
No current - until 0.7 V appear across the diode. When the voltage reaches 0.7 v the
diode turns on, 0.7 V can appear across the diode.
Figure b shows the equivalent circuit for the Constant voltage drop model a silicon
diode. The diode act as a switch in series with a barrier potential of 0.7 V.
If the voltage across the diode is greater than 0.7 V, the switch will close. On the
other hand, if the voltage is less than 0.7 V, the switch will open. In this case, there is
no current through the diode.

20
Diode models

21
 Problem
Calculate the forward bias current of a Si diode when forward bias voltage of
0.4V is applied, the reverse saturation current is 1.17×10 -9A and the thermal
voltage is 25.2mV.
Solution
Equation for diode current
I=Is×(e(V/ηVT)-1)
where Is = reverse saturation current
η = ideality factor
VT = thermal voltage
V = applied voltage
Since in this question ideality factor is not mentioned it can be taken as one.
I0 = 1.17 x 10-9A, VT = 0.0252V, η = 1, V = 0.4V
Therefore, I= 1.17×10-9x e 0.4/0.025 -1 = 9.156mA

22
 Diode parameters
Maximum power rating.
It is the maximum power that can be dissipated at the junction without
damaging it..
Maximum forward current.
It is the highest instantaneous forward current that a pn junction can conduct
without damage to the junction.
Peak inverse voltage.
It is the maximum reverse voltage that a diode can withstand without
destroying the junction.

23
 Diode parameters
Knee Voltage
In the forward region, the voltage at which the current starts to increase
rapidly is called the knee voltage or Cut in voltage of the diode. The
knee voltage equals the barrier potential
Vk= 0.7 (Si)
Vk= 0.3 (Ge)

Reverse current or leakage current.

It is the current that flows through a reverse biased diode. This current
is due to the minority carriers.

24
 Problem
Use the ideal diode model to calculate the load voltage and load
current in the circuit.

Since the diode is forward biased, it is equivalent to a closed

switch. :
Vs= 10 V
With Ohm’s law, the load current is:

25
 Problem
Use Constant voltage drop model to calculate the load voltage and load
current,
Solution
Since the diode is forward biased, it is equivalent to a battery of 0.7 V.
VL =10 V - 0.7 V =9.3 V
With Ohm’s law, the load current is:

26
 Problem
For the series diode configuration given in the Figure, determine VD, VR, and
ID.(Constant voltage drop model)
The diode is in the “on” state,

27
 Types of Diodes and Their Uses

PN Junction Are used to allow current to flow in one direction while blocking
current flow in the opposite direction. The pn junction diode is the
Diodes: typical diode that has been used in the previous circuits.

A K P n
Schematic Symbol for a PN Representative Structure for a PN
Junction Diode Junction Diode

Zener Diodes: Are specifically designed to operate under reverse breakdown

conditions. These diodes have a very accurate and specific reverse
breakdown voltage.

A K
Schematic Symbol for a Zener
Diode
11/15/24 28
 Types of Diodes and Their Uses

Light-Emitting Light-emitting diodes are designed with a very large band gap so
movement of carriers across their depletion region emits photons
Diodes: of light energy. Lower band gap LEDs (Light-Emitting Diodes) emit
infrared radiation, while LEDs with higher band gap energy emit
visible light. Many stop lights are now starting to use LEDs because
they are extremely bright and last longer than regular bulbs for a
relatively low cost.

The arrows in the LED

A K representation indicate
emitted light.
Schematic Symbol for a Light-
Emitting Diode

11/15/24 29
 Types of Diodes and Their Uses

Photodiodes: While LEDs emit light, Photodiodes are sensitive to received light.
They are constructed so their pn junction can be exposed to the
outside through a clear window or lens.
In Photoconductive mode the saturation current increases in
proportion to the intensity of the received light. This type of diode
A K is used in CD players.
In Photovoltaic mode, when the pn junction is exposed to a certain
wavelength of light, the diode generates voltage and can be used
as an energy source. This type of diode is used in the production of
 solar power.
A K

Schematic Symbols for

Photodiodes

11/15/24 30
Thank You

31