COMMUNICATION

Learning Objectives

Understand the communication process.

Compare and contrast different types of communication.
Compare and contrast different communication channels.
Understand and learn to overcome barriers to effective communication.
Understand the role listening plays in communication.
Learn how verbal and nonverbal communication can carry different
meanings among cultures.
For example, DOWNSIZING has been referred to using many euphemisms

(language that softens the sound of the word) for termination. Here are just a few

ways to say you’re about to lose your job without saying you’ve been fired:
Career alternative enhancement program
Career-change opportunity
Dehiring staff
Derecruiting resources
Downsizing employment
Employee reduction activities
Implementing a skills mix adjustment
Negative employee retention
Optimizing outplacement potential
Rectification of a workforce imbalance
Redundancy elimination
Right-sizing employment
Vocation relocation policy
Communication defined

Communication is vital to organizations—it’s how we coordinate actions

and achieve goals. It is defined in Webster’s dictionary as a process by
which information is exchanged between individuals through a common
system of symbols, signs, or behavior. We know that 50% to 90% of a
manager’s time is spent communicating (Schnake et al., 1990), and
communication ability is related to a manager’s performance (Penley et
al., 1991). In most work environments, a miscommunication is an
annoyance—it can interrupt workflow by causing delays and interpersonal
strife. But, in some work arenas, like operating rooms and airplane
cockpits, communication can be a matter of life and death.
So, just how prevalent is miscommunication in the workplace?

You may not be surprised to learn that the relationship between

miscommunication and negative outcomes is very strong. Data suggest
that deficient interpersonal communication was a causal factor in
approximately 70% to 80% of all accidents over the last 20 years.

At NASA, success depends on strong communication.

In business, poor communication costs money and wastes time. One study
found that 14% of each workweek is wasted on poor communication
(Armour, 1998). In contrast, effective communication is an asset for
organizations and individuals alike. Effective communication skills, for
example, are an asset for job seekers. A recent study of recruiters at 85
business schools ranked communication and interpersonal skills as the
highest skills they were looking for, with 89% of the recruiters saying they
were important (Alsop, 2006). On the flip side, good communication can help
a company retain its star employees. Surveys find that when employees
think their organizations do a good job of keeping them informed about
matters that affect them and when they have access to the information they
need to do their jobs, they are more satisfied with their employers
The Communication Process

Communication fulfills three main functions within an organization

1. Coordination
2. Transmission of information
3. Sharing emotions and feelings.

The coordination of effort within an organization helps people work toward

the same goals. Transmitting information is a vital part of this process.
Sharing emotions and feelings bonds teams and unites people in times of
celebration and crisis. Effective communication helps people grasp issues,
build rapport with coworkers, and achieve consensus.
 NOISE

Encode MESSSAGE Decode

Sender Medium Receiver

Phone
E-mail
Decode In person Encode
Instant message

FEEDBACKK
Noise is anything that interferes with or distorts the message being transformed. It can be
external in the environment (such as distractions) or it can be within the receiver.

For example, the receiver may be extremely nervous and unable to pay attention to the
message.

Noise can also occur even within the sender: The sender may be unwilling to take the
time to convey an accurate message, or the words that are chosen can be ambiguous
and prone to misinterpretation.
A sender, such as a boss, coworker, or customer, originates the message
with a thought. For example, the boss’s thought could be: “Get more printer
toner cartridges!”
The sender encodes the message, translating the idea into words.
The boss may communicate this thought by saying, “Hey you guys, let’s
order more printer toner cartridges.”
The medium of this encoded message may be spoken words, written words,
or signs.
The receiver is the person who receives the message.
The receiver decodes the message by assigning meaning to the words.
Picture the next scene. The place: a staff meeting. The time: a few days
later.
Bill’s boss believes the message about printer toner has been received.
“Are the printer toner cartridges here yet?” Bill’s boss asks.
“You never said it was a rush job!” Bill protests. “But!” “But!”
Miscommunications like these happen in the workplace every day.
We’ve seen that miscommunication does occur in the workplace, but how does a
miscommunication happen?

It helps to think of the communication process. The series of arrows pointing the way
from the sender to the receiver and back again can, and often do, fall short of their target.
Barriers to Effective Communication

According to George Bernard Shaw, “the biggest single problem in

communication is the illusion that it has taken place.”

1. Filtering is the distortion or withholding of information to manage a

person’s reactions.

Example of filtering include a manager’s keeping a division’s negative

sales figures from a superior, in this case, the vice president. The old
saying, “Don’t shoot the messenger!” illustrates the tendency of receivers
to vent their negative response to unwanted messages to the sender
Since people tend to filter bad news more during upward communication, it is also helpful to
remember that those below you in an organization may be wary of sharing bad news.
One way to defuse this tendency to filter is to reward employees who clearly convey information
upward, regardless of whether the news is good or bad.

Some criteria that individuals may use when deciding whether to filter a message or pass it on:
1. Past experience: Were previous senders rewarded for passing along news of this kind in the
past, or were they criticized?
2. Knowledge and perception of the speaker: Has the receiver’s direct superior made it clear that
“no news is good news?”
3. Emotional state, involvement with the topic, and level of attention: Does the sender’s fear of
failure or criticism prevent the message from being conveyed? Is the topic within the sender’s
realm of expertise, increasing confidence in the ability to decode the message, or is the sender
out of a personal comfort zone when it comes to evaluating the message’s significance? Are
personal concerns impacting the sender’s ability to judge the message’s value?
2. Selective perception refers to filtering what we see and hear to suit our own needs. This
process is often unconscious. We are bombarded with too much stimuli every day to pay
equal attention to everything, so we pick and choose according to our own needs. Selective
perception is a time-saver, a necessary tool in a complex culture. But it can also lead to
mistakes.

3. Information overload occurs “when the information processing demands on an individual’s

time to perform interactions and internal calculations exceed the supply or capacity of time
available for such processing” (Schick, Gordon, & Haka, 1990).

4. Emotional Disconnects. A receiver who is emotionally upset tends to ignore or distort what
the sender is saying. A sender who is emotionally upset may be unable to present ideas or
feelings effectively.
5. Lack of Source Familiarity or Credibility

6. Workplace Gossip - the informal gossip network known as the grapevine is a lifeline for many
employees seeking information about their company (Kurland & Pelled, 2000). Researchers agree that
the grapevine is an inevitable part of organizational life. Research finds that 70% of all organizational
communication occurs at the grapevine level (Crampton, 1998). Employees trust their peers as a source
of information, but the grapevine’s informal structure can be a barrier to effective communication from
the managerial point of view.

7. Semantics. Words can mean different things to different people, or they might not mean anything to
another person. For example, companies often have their own acronyms and buzzwords (called
business jargon) that are clear to them but impenetrable to outsiders.

Eighty buzz words in the business can be found at the following Web site:
http://www.amanet.org/movingahead/editorial2002_2003/nov03_80buzzwords.htm
Tips for Reducing Miscommunication-by-Jargon

• Know your audience. If they weren’t sitting beside you in law school, medical school, or in that finance
or computer class, then assume they don’t know what you are talking about. Speak for the other person
and not yourself.
• Decode your acronyms. If you use an acronym in verbal or written communication, explain what it
means after you use it for the first time. Your audience will filter your message otherwise, as they
wonder, “Now what does ROI stand for?” (It stands for “return on investment,” btw—by the way.)
• Limit your jargon use. Jargon doesn’t necessarily make you sound smart or business savvy. It can
create communication barriers and obstacles and hurts your ability to build relationships and close
deals.

Source: Adapted from ideas in Adubato, S. (2005, March 13). Scrap the jargon…Now! Retrieved July 1,
2008, from The Star-Ledger Web site: http://www.stand-deliver.com/star_ledger/050313.asp.
8. Gender Differences in Communication
9. Differences in Meaning Between the Sender and Receiver
10. Biased Language
11. Poor Listening
Example of biased language

Avoid Consider Using

black attorney attorney
businessman business person
chairman chair or chairperson
cleaning lady cleaner or maintenance worker
male nurse nurse
manpower staff or personnel
secretary assistant or associate
Effective communication is clear, factual, and goal-oriented. It is also
respectful. Referring to a person by one adjective (a brain, a diabetic)
reduces the person to that one characteristic. Language that inflames or
stereotypes a person poisons the communication process. Language that
insults an individual or group based on age, ethnicity, sexual preference,
or political beliefs violates public and private standards of decency,
ranging from civil rights to corporate regulations
The average worker spends 55% of their workdays listening. Managers listen up to 70%
each day. Unfortunately, listening doesn’t lead to understanding in every case.

Research shows that listening skills were related to promotions (Sypher, Bostrom, & Seibert,
1989).
Listening clearly matters. Listening takes practice, skill, and concentration.

Alan Gulick, a Starbucks Corporation spokesperson, believes better listening can improve
profits. If every Starbucks employee misheard one $10 order each day, their errors would
cost the company a billion dollars annually. To teach its employees to listen, Starbucks
created a code that helps employees taking orders hear the size, flavor, and use of milk or
decaffeinated coffee. The person making the drink echoes the order aloud.
Active Listening
Active listening can be defined as giving full attention to what other people are saying,
taking time to understand the points being made, asking questions as needed, and not
interrupting at inappropriate times.

Active listening creates a real-time relationship between the sender and receiver by
acknowledging the content and receipt of a message. As seen in the Starbucks example,
repeating and confirming a message’s content offers a way to confirm that the correct
content is flowing between colleagues. The process creates a bond between coworkers
while increasing the flow and accuracy of messaging.
How Can We Listen Actively?

Carl Rogers gave five rules for active listening:

1. Listen for message content.

2. Listen for feelings.
3. Respond to feelings.
4. Note all cues.
5. Paraphrase and restate
The good news is that listening is a skill that can be learned (Brownell, 1990). The first step is to decide that
we want to listen. Casting aside distractions, such as by reducing background or internal noise, is critical.
Second, throughout the conversation, show the speaker that you’re listening.
You can do this nonverbally by nodding your head and keeping your attention focused on the speaker.
You can also do it verbally, by saying things like, “Yes,” “That’s interesting,” or other such verbal cues.
As you’re listening, pay attention to the sender’s body language for additional cues about how they’re feeling.
Interestingly, silence has a role in active listening. During active listening, we are trying to understand what
has been said, and in silence we can consider the implications. We can’t consider information and object to it
at the same time. That’s where the power of silence comes into play.
Finally, if anything is not clear to you, ask questions. Confirm that you’ve heard the message accurately, by
repeating back a crucial piece like, “Great, I’ll see you at 2:00 p.m. in my office.”
At the end of the conversation, a thank you from both parties is an optional but highly effective way of
acknowledging each other’s teamwork.
10 Ways to Improve Listening Habits
1. Start by stopping. Take a moment to inhale and exhale quietly before you begin to listen. Your job
as a listener is to receive information openly and accurately.
2. Don’t worry about what you’ll say when the time comes. Silence can be a beautiful thing.
3. Join the sender’s team. When the sender pauses, summarize what you believe has been said.
“What I’m hearing is that we need to focus on marketing as well as sales. Is that correct?” Be
attentive to physical as well as verbal communications. “I hear you saying that we should focus on
marketing, but the way you’re shaking your head tells me the idea may not really appeal to you—is
that right?”
4. Don’t multitask while listening. Listening is a full-time job. It’s tempting to multitask when you and
the sender are in different places, but doing that is counterproductive. The human mind can only
focus on one thing at a time. Listening with only part of your brain increases the chances that you’ll
have questions later, ultimately requiring more of the speaker’s time. (And when the speaker is in
the same room, multitasking signals a disinterest that is considered rude.)
5. Try to empathize with the sender’s point of view. You don’t have to agree, but can you find common
ground?
6. Confused? Ask questions. There’s nothing wrong with admitting you haven’t understood
the sender’s point. You may even help the sender clarify the message.
7. Establish eye contact. Making eye contact with the speaker (if appropriate for the
culture) is important.
8. What is the goal of this communication? Ask yourself this question at different point
during the communication to keep the information flow on track. Be polite. Differences in
opinion can be the starting point of consensus.
9. It’s great to be surprised. Listen with an open mind, not just for what you want to hear.
10. Pay attention to what is not said. Does the sender’s body language seem to contradict
the message? If so, clarification may be in order.

Sources: Adapted from information in Barrett, D. J. (2006). Leadership communication. New York: McGrawHill/Irwin; Improving verbal
skills. (1997). Retrieved July 1, 2008, from the Institute for Management Web site: http://www.itstime.com/aug97.htm; Ten tips: Active
listening. (2007, June 4). Retrieved July 1, 2008, from the Communication at Work Web site: http://communication.atwork-
network.com/2007/06/04/ten-tipsactive-listening /.
Communication Freezers put an end to effective communication by making the receiver feel
judged or defensive. Typical communication stoppers include criticizing, blaming, ordering,
judging, or shaming the other person. Some examples of things to avoid saying include the
following:
1. Telling the other person what to do
2. Threatening with “or else” implied
3. Making suggestions or telling the other person what they ought to do: ◦
4. Attempting to educate the other person:
5. Judging the other person negatively:
6. Giving insincere praise
7. Psychoanalyzing the other person
8. Making light of the other person’s problems by generalizing
9. Asking excessive or inappropriate questions
10. Making light of the problem by kidding
Types of Communication
1. Written communication in which a message is read
2. Verbal communication involving listening to a person to understand the meaning of a
message
3. Nonverbal communication involving observing a person and inferring meaning.
Nonverbal communication
1. Body Language
2. Eye Contact
3. Facial Expressions
4. Touch
5. Space – proxemics - the different kinds of distance that occur between people:
intimate (0 t 18 inches); personal (1.5 to 5 ft); social (5 to 7 ft); and public
Communication channels
Information Channel Information Richness

Face-to-face conversation High

Videoconferencing High
Telephone conversation High
E-mails Medium
Handheld devices Medium
Blogs Medium
Written letters and memos Medium
Formal written documents Low
Spreadsheets Low
Guide for When to Use Written versus Verbal Communication

Use Written Comm When: Use Verbal Comm When:

* conveying facts conveying emotion and feelings

* the message needs to become the message does not need to be permanent
part of a permanent file
* there is little time urgency there is time urgency
* you do not need immediate you need immediate feedback
feedback
* the ideas are complicated the ideas are simple or can be made simple
with explanations
 E-mail Do’s and Don’ts
1. DON’T send or forward chain e-mails.
2. DON’T put anything in an e-mail that you don’t want the world to see.
3. DON’T write a message in capital letters—this is the equivalent of SHOUTING.
4. DON’T routinely CC everyone. Reducing inbox clutter is a great way to increase communication.
5. DON’T hit send until you’ve spell-checked your e-mail.
6. DO use a subject line that summarizes your message, adjusting it as the message changes over time.
7. DO make your request in the first line of your e-mail. (And if that’s all you need to say, stop there!)
8. DO end your e-mail with a brief sign-off such as, “Thank you,” followed by your name and contact
information.
9. DO think of a work e-mail as a binding communication.
10. DO let others know if you’ve received an e-mail in error.

Sources: Adapted from information in Leland, K., & Bailey, K. (2000). Customer service for dummies. New York: Wiley; Information Technology Services.
(1997). Top 10 email dos and top ten email don’ts. Retrieved July 1, 2008, from the University of Illinois at Chicago Medical Center Web site:
http://www.uic.edu/hsc/ uicmc/its/customers/email-tips.htm; Kawasaki, G. (2006, February 3). The effective emailer. Retrieved July 1, 2008, from How to
Change the World Web site: http://blog.guykawasaki.com/2006/02/the_effective_e.html.
Career Advice Communication
Consider the following:
Is your e-mail name professional? The typical convention for business e-mail contains some form of
your name. While an e-mail name like “LazyGirl” or “DeathMonkey” may be fine for chatting online with
your friends, they may send the wrong signal to individuals you e-mail such as professors and
prospective employers.
Is your outgoing voice mail greeting professional? If not, change it. Faculty and prospective recruiters
will draw certain conclusions if, upon calling you, they get a message that screams, “Party, party, party!”
Do you have a “private” social networking Web site on MySpace.com, Facebook.com? If so, consider
what it says about you to employers or clients. If it is information you wouldn’t share at work, it probably
shouldn’t be there.

Googled yourself lately? If not, you probably should. Potential employers have begun searching the
Web as part of background checking, and you should be aware of what’s out there about you.
Cross-Cultural Communication