SEMICONDUCTOR

DEVICES

By
Dr. Roopa Hegde
Assistant Professor
ECE
MSRIT
 Basic Semiconductor Theory
• The function of an electronic device is to control the movement
of the electrons.

• All matter is made of atoms.

• An atom is the smallest particle of an element that retains the

characteristics of that element.

• Atoms consists of electrons, protons and neutrons.

 Basic Semiconductor Theory
• All elements in the periodic table are arranged according to their
atomic number.

• Atomic number = No. of Protons

• = No. of Electrons

• Atomic weight ≈ No. of Protons + No. of Electrons

• The atom of semiconductor element

• Silicon has 14 protons, 14 neutrons in its nucleus and 14 orbital
electrons.
• Hence atomic number = 14
• atomic weight approximately equal to 28
 Basic Semiconductor Theory
• Each discrete distance (orbit) from the nucleus corresponds to a
certain energy level.

• In an atom, the orbits are grouped into energy bands known as

Shells.

• A given atom has fixed number of shells.

• The outermost shell where electrons with the highest energy

exist and these electrons are relatively loosely bound to atom is
Valence Shell.

• Electrons in the valence shell are called Valence Electrons.

 Basic Semiconductor Theory
• Theses valence electrons contribute to chemical reactions and
bonding within the structure of a material and determine its
electrical properties.

• Ionisation:
• Valence electrons possessing high
energy, can escape from outer shell
and atom’s influence.
• Leaves atom positively charged
• Escaped electron is called Free
Electron.
 Basic Semiconductor Theory
• When free electron loses its energy and falls into outer shell of a
neutral atom, that atom becomes negatively charged.

• Maximum Number of Electrons in each shell of an atom:

• 2

• where n is the number of the shell.

• n = 1, = 2.
• n = 2, = 8.
• n = 3, = 18.
• n = 4, = 32.
 Basic Semiconductor Theory
• Atomic structure of Carbon atom:

• Atom can be represented by core

(inner shells and nucleus) and valence
shell.

Atomic no. of Carbon = 6

There are 4 electrons in valence shell and 2 electrons in inner

shell.

Find the valence electrons in Silicon, Germanium and Copper?

Basic Semiconductor Theory
Energy Band diagram
of an atom of Silicon crystal
 Crystalline material and their properties
• Based on their electrical properties, materials can be classified into
Conductors, Semi-conductors and Insulators.

• Conductors: have loosely bound valence electrons.

• Ex: Cu, Ag, Au, Al

• Insulators: have tightly bound valence electrons. They are

compounds rather than single element materials.
• Forbidden gap- 6 eV (diamond)
• Ex: Mica, rubber, glass

• Semi-conductors: has property between conductors and insulators.

• Forbidden gap- 0.72 – 1.1 eV (Ge and Si)
• Ex: Silicon, Germanium, Carbon, Gallium Arsenide.
Conductivity of different materials
Crystalline material and their properties
• When the electrons acquire sufficient energy, they leave
the valence shell and become free electron and enter into
Conduction Band.

• The energy difference between valence band and

conduction band is called Energy Gap.

• This is the amount of energy that is required for a valence

electron to jump from valence band to conduction band.

• Once in conduction band, valence electron becomes free

or conduction electron.
Crystalline material and their properties
Comparison: Metal &Semiconductor
Comparison: Semiconductor- Silicon &
Germanium
 Covalent Bond:
Silicon is a crystalline material.

• When atoms combine to form solid crystalline material, they

arrange themselves in a symmetrical pattern.
• Atoms are held within crystalline structure by Covalent Bond.
• It is created by interaction of valence electrons of the atoms.
 Covalent Bond:
• Each silicon atom positions itself with four adjacent silicon
atoms to form a silicon crystal.

• A silicon atom with its four valence electrons shares an electron

with each of its four neighbours.

• There are eight shared valence electrons with each atoms and
produces a state of chemical stability.

• Sharing of valence electrons produces covalent bond that hold

the atoms together.
 Conduction in Semi-conductor:
• Free electrons are also called Conduction electrons.

• When valence electron jumps into conduction band leaving

behind a vacancy in valence band.

• This vacancy is known as Hole.

• Recombination: occurs when conduction electron losses its

energy and falls into hole in valence band.

• For every electron raised to conduction band by external energy,

there is one hole left in valence band creating electron-hole pair.
 Electron current and Hole current :
• The flow of charge carriers is called current.
• Electron current: When a voltage is applied across an intrinsic
silicon, the thermally generated free electrons in conduction
band which are free to move randomly, are now attracted
towards positive end.
• The movement of free electron in semiconductor material is
called electron current.
 Electron current and Hole current :
• Hole current: Another current occurs in the valence band, where
the holes created.
• Some valence electrons are still attached to their atoms and not
free to move in the crystal structure.
• However, a valance electron can move into a nearby hole with
little change in its energy level thus leaving another hole where it
came from. Effectively a hole is moved from one place to another
hence contributing to hole current.
 Semiconductors:
• Semiconductors have the following characteristics properties:

a) Contrary to the positive temperature coefficient of resistance

exhibited by a metal, a pure semiconductor has a negative
temperature coefficient of resistance.
b) Upon irradiation by light, a semiconductor shows a
photovoltage or a change of resistance.
c) Semiconductors have high thermoelectric power of signs both
positive and negative with respect to a metal.
d) The junction between a p-type and an n-type semiconductor
possess rectification properties.
 Semiconductors: intrinsic
• Intrinsic semiconductor: Pure semiconductor where the number
of holes in valence band is equal to the number of electrons in
the conduction band.

• If the electrical conductivity of a semiconductor is entirely

determined by the carriers which are generated by thermal
excitations from the valence band to the conduction band, the
semiconductor is pure or intrinsic semiconductor.
 Semiconductors: intrinsic
• Each atom of Ge has 4 valence electrons.

• The inner core of the atom has positive charge of +4.

• 4 valence electrons are held by covalent bonds with the valence

electrons of neighbouring Ge atoms.
 Semiconductors: intrinsic
• Since valence electrons bind one atom to another, they are not
available for electrical conduction in the absence of thermal excitation.

• Hence at 0 K a pure or intrinsic semiconductor behaves like an

insulator.

• At room temperature some valence electrons have enough thermal

energy to break their covalent bonds and become free electrons.

• The minimum energy required to break the covalent bond is the

forbidden gap energy which is 0.72 eV for Ge and 1.1 eV for Si.

• Band gap – minimum energy needed to break the covalent bond and
produce an electron-hole pair.
 Semiconductors: intrinsic
• In intrinsic semiconductors, the number of holes is equal to the
number of electrons.

• In equilibrium, the electron concentration n and the hole

concentration p are equal, i.e n = p = .

• - intrinsic carrier concentration.

• increases with temperature.

• At room temperature, is 2.5 X for Ge and

• 1.5 X for Si.
 Recombination of Electrons and Holes:
• Recombination: occurs when conduction electron losses its
energy and falls into hole in valence band.

• In this process, electron – hole pair is destroyed.

• Rate of recombination is approximately proportional to the

product of electron concentration and hole concentration.

• Energy band gap = Electromagnetic energy released

• =hγ

• h – Planck’s constant, γ – frequency of emitted Electromagnetic

 Recombination of Electrons and Holes:
•
• c – velocity of light 3 x

• While some electron- hole pairs are lost by recombination, new

pairs are generated due to thermal excitation.

• For pure semiconductor, rate of recombination and rate of

generation are equal.

• As temperature increases or band gap decreases, the thermal

equilibrium value of electron and hole concentration also
increases.
 Semiconductors: extrinsic
• Extrinsic, doped or impure semiconductor: When the small
amount of impurity atoms (1 part in 10 billion) are added to the
intrinsic semiconductor, it becomes an extrinsic semiconductor.

• The process of adding small percentage of impurity atoms to the

semiconductor is called doping.

• Impurity added is Dopant.

• The electrical conductivity of an extrinsic semiconductor is

controlled by the excess free electrons or holes produced by the
impurity atoms.
 Semiconductors: extrinsic
• In Germanium or Silicon, addition of Group V elements like
Phosphorus (P), Antimony (Sb) and Arsenic (As) produces
excess free electrons – n-type Semiconductor.

• In Germanium or Silicon, addition of Group III elements like

Indium (In), Gallium (Ga), Boron (B) and Aluminium (Al) creates
excess hole– p-type Semiconductor.

• In compound semiconductor like InSb, a group VI element

tellurium (Te) generates excess free electrons and a group II
element Zinc (Zn) produces excess holes.
 n-type Semiconductor:
• The size of the impurity atom is similar to that of Si or Ge, so that
the impurity atoms will displace some of Si or Ge atoms in the
crystal lattice.

• Group V - Pentavalent impurity – 5 valence electrons

• 4 out 5 valence electrons of pentavalent impurity atom will form

covalent bonds with the 4 valence electrons of the neighbouring
host crystal atoms (Si or Ge).

• 5th valence electron of the impurity atom is loosely bound to it.

n-type Semiconductor:
 n-type Semiconductor:
• This valence electron can easily be detached from the impurity
atom and become free electron.

• The energy is much less than the band gap which is required to
rupture the covalent bond and it is provided by thermal agitation of
the crystal.

• The impurity atom becomes positively charged ion.

• Since the impurity atoms donate excess free electrons, they are
known as donor or n-type impurities.

• Semiconductor containing donor impurities are called n-type

 n-type Semiconductor: Energy band
• In the band picture, the energy level of the additional electron
lies close to the bottom of the conduction band.
• Such an energy level is called a donor level as it can donate an
electron by thermal excitation.
 n-type Semiconductor: Energy band
• The new energy level is a discrete level called donor level.

• For Ge, the donor level is about 0.01 eV and for Si it is about
0.05 eV.

• In n-type, the electrons are majority carriers and holes are

minority carriers.
 p-type Semiconductor:
• Group III - Trivalent impurity
• – 3 valence electrons

• When a trivalent impurity is added, only 3 of the 4 covalent

bonds can be filled.

• As a trivalent impurity atom can accept one

• electron, valence electron from the neighbouring atom can fill the
vacancy.

• As trivalent impurity atoms accept electrons, they are called

acceptor atom or p-type impurities.
p-type Semiconductor:
 p-type Semiconductor: Energy band
• The energy level produced by introducing p-type impurities lies
just above the valence band.

• This energy level is called

• acceptor level.
 p-type Semiconductor: Energy band
• For Ge, the acceptor level is about 0.01 eV and for Si it is about
0.05 eV above the valence band.

• In p-type, the holes are majority carriers and electrons are

minority carriers.
 Comparison between n-type and ptype
SI No Parameter n-type p-type
1. Impurity doped Pentavalent Trivalent impurity
impurity
2. Also known as Donor atom due to Acceptor atom
the existence of because of
additional electron presence of
additional hole
3. Doped group Group V elements. Group III elements.
for eg - arsenic, For eg - boron,
antimony, bismuth, gallium, indium,
phosphorus etc. aluminium etc.
4. Majority carriers Electrons Holes

5. Minority carriers Holes Electrons

 Comparison between n-type and ptype
SI No Parameter n-type p-type
6. Conductivity Due to presence of Due to presence of
electrons holes
7. Presence of fermi level Fermi level is Fermi level appears
present nearer to closer to the
the conduction valence than the
band than the conduction band
valence band
8. Concentration of electrons Very high as Low
compared to p type
semiconductor
9. Concentration of holes Comparatively less High
than p type
semiconductor
•Thank you