MEMORY

By:
Maha Aamir
Hamayal Khan
Jamal Naeem
Rabia Chohan
 Content
What is Memory?
What are classical models?
What are types of
memory?
What is its System,
structure and process?
Memory in daily life.
What are disorders?
 What is memory?
Definition:
In psychology, memory is an organism's mental ability to store,
retain and recall information. (Wikipedia)
Memory is the retention of, and ability to recall, information,
personal experiences, and procedures (skills and habits).
(Skeptic' Dictionary)
'Memory' is a label for a diverse set of cognitive capacities by
which humans and perhaps other animals retain information and
reconstruct past experiences, usually for present purposes.
(Stanford Encyclopedia)
 The historical roots of memory research  Later in the 19th century, the
—mainly from the period between 1870 recognition that the number of neurons
and 1920—are described with emphasis in the brain doesn’t increase
on human memory. The study of human significantly after reaching adulthood
memory stretches back at least 2,000 suggested to early neuroanatomists
years to Aristotle’s early attempts to that memories aren’t primarily stored
understand memory in his treatise “On through the creation of neurons, but
the Soul". rather through the strengthening of
connection between neurons.
ARISTOTLE: (384-322 BC)
In 1966, the breakthrough discovery of
"There's nothing in the intellect
Brief History that wasn't previously in the
long-term potentiation (LTP)
suggested that memories may be
encoded in the strength of synaptic
senses"
signals between neurons . And so we
Suggested basic principles of memory, started understanding memory as a
as laws of association: neuro-chemical process.

▪ Contiguity in space or time Memory is today defined in

psychology as the faculty of encoding,
▪ Similarity storing, and retrieving information
(Squire, 2009). Psychologists have
▪ Contrast (associations of opposites) found that memory includes three
important categories: sensory, short-
term, and long-term
 Concept of memory

Memory is the process of taking in information from the world around us, processing it, storing it
and later recalling that information, sometimes many years later.

“Memory is the process of maintaining information over time.” (Matlin, 2005)

“Memory is the means by which we draw on our past experiences in order to use this information
in the present’ (Sternberg, 1999).

Memory is essential to all our lives. Without a memory of the past, we cannot operate in the present
or think about the future. We would not be able to remember what we did yesterday, what we have
done today or what we plan to do tomorrow. Without memory, we could not learn anything.
 1. Memory Encoding
The translation of information into a form in which it can be used is called encoding. Encoding is the first stage of processing
information. When information comes into our memory system (from sensory input), it needs to be changed into a form that
the system can cope with, so that it can be stored.

Think of this as similar to changing your money into a different currency when you travel from one country to another.

Traditional 3 There are three main ways in which information can be encoded:

 Visual
stage memory One type of code is visual. People use visual codes when they form a mental picture. For example, how do you remember a
telephone number you have looked up in the phone book? If you can see it then you are using visual coding.

model  Acoustic

Another type of code is acoustic. People use acoustic codes when they use sound. For example, again you are trying to
remember a telephone number that you have looked up in the phone book, if you are repeating it to yourself you are using
acoustic coding.

 Semantic

Another type of coding is semantic. A semantic code represents information in terms of its meaning. The principle encoding
system in long-term memory (LTM) appears to be semantic coding.
 2. Memory Storage
Most adults can store between 5 and 9 items in their
This concerns the nature of memory stores, short-term memory. Miller (1956) put this idea
i.e., where the information is stored, how long forward and he called it the magic number 7. He
the memory lasts for (duration), how much can thought that short-term memory capacity was 7 (plus
be stored at any time (capacity) and what kind or minus 2) items because it only had a certain
of information is held. It is the second process number of “slots” in which items could be stored.
of memory. However, Miller didn’t specify the amount of
The way we store information affects the way information that can be held in each slot. Indeed, if
we retrieve it. There has been a significant we can “chunk” information together we can store a

Traditional 3 amount of research regarding the differences

between Short Term Memory (STM)
lot more information in our short-term memory. In
contrast, the capacity of LTM is thought to be
unlimited.

stage memory and Long Term Memory (LTM).

 Maintenance rehearsal Information can only be stored for a brief duration in
STM (0-30 seconds), but LTM can last a lifetime.

model Mechanical or rote repetition of information to

keep from forgetting is called maintenance
rehearsal. The more time spent on it, the
 Organizational Systems
Stored memories become organized and arranged in
longer the information will be remembered. the mind for future use. In some ways, the mind is
However, it does not connect information to like a storehouse of files and file cabinets in which
past learning and therefore is a poor way to put you store what you learn and what you need to
information in permanent storage. remember. Your memory organizes information into
classes according to common features.
 Elaborative rehearsal
 Filing Errors
A more effective way to learn new information
is to relate it to information you already know. Our ability to remember is subject to error. Errors can
This method is called elaborative rehearsal. It occur because we file information incorrectly.
is widely used in education.
 3. Memory Retrieval
Retrieval consists of locating stored information and
returning it to conscious thought. Retrieval is the
third stage of processing information. This refers to
getting information out storage. If we can’t
remember something, it may be because we are
unable to retrieve it. When we are asked to retrieve

Traditional 3 something from memory, the differences between

STM and LTM become very clear.
 Context-Dependent Memory

stage memory Context-dependent memories are information that is

more easily retrieved in the context or situation in

model which it was encoded and stored. Such memories are

dependent on the place where they were encoded
and stored.
 State-Dependent Memory
Memories that are retrieved because the mood in
which they were originally encoded is recreated are
called state-dependent memories. Memory is better
when people are in the same mood as when the
information was acquired.
On the Tip of the Tongue
Trying to retrieve memories that are not very well
organized or are incomplete can be highly
frustrating. Sometimes we are so close to retrieving
the information that it seems as though the
information is on the “tip of the tongue.”
Psychologists call this phenomenon the feeling-of-
knowing experience.
 Organizing information can help aid retrieval. You can
organize information in sequences (such as
alphabetically, by size or by time). Imagine a patient
being discharged from hospital whose treatment
involved taking various pills at various times, changing
their dressing and doing exercises.
If the doctor gives these instructions in the order which
they must be carried out throughout the day (i.e., in the
sequence of time), this will help the patient remember
them.

Remembering episodes involves three processes:

encoding information (learning it, by perceiving it and
relating it to past knowledge), storing it (maintaining it
over time), and then retrieving it (accessing the
information when needed). Failures can occur at any
stage, leading to forgetting or to having false
memories. The key to improving one’s memory is to
improve processes of encoding and to use techniques
that guarantee effective retrieval.
 Neuroscience and memory
Memories aren’t stored in just one part of the brain. Different
types are stored across different, interconnected brain regions.
Each Memory system has a distinct anatomical organization,
where different parts of the brain are recruited during phases of
memory storage. Within the brain, memory is a dynamic
property of populations of neurons and their interconnections.
Memories are laid down in our brains via chemical changes at
the neuron level.
  FRONTAL LOBE
The frontal lobe stores semantic and episodic memories
 THE MOTOR CORTEX
The motor cortex is involved in storing Procedural memories.
 THE PREFRONTAL CORTEX
Parts of Brain The prefrontal cortex is involved in the storage of short term memory.

involved in  THE AMYGDALA

The amygdala is vital to the formation of new emotional memories.
memory  THE HIPPOCAMPUS
The hippocampus plays a pivotal role in the formation of new long-term semantic and
Episodic memories.
 THE CEREBELLUM
The cerebellum is responsible for storage of Procedural memories.
 THE TEMPORAL LOBE
The temporal lobe is involved in the formation and storage of long term semantic and
Episodic memories and contributes to processing of new material in short term memory.
 Memory disorders are defined as There are certain reasons which are
suppressed cognition abilities linked to produce mild and severe
leading to the deteriorated ability of memory disorders. Each particular
reasoning and decision making. This reason may separately account for a

What are will further create hindrance in

communication skills, leaving the
certain deteriorative disorder or many
of the causes get together to produce a
disorders of sufferer to forget the words an certain condition within an individual.
Key causes are listed below:
memory and individual wanted to speak out.
Many notable disorders immensely
 Age
 Genetic inheritance - Inheriting genes for
their causes? affect the brain’s progression and its Alzheimer’s and Huntington’s disease
 Trauma
formability.  Constriction of cerebral vessels and arteries
Memory loss is a normal physiologic  Use of excessive alcohols or narcotics or opioids
 Untreated metabolic disorders like diabetes
process that starts at the age of 45.
 Vitamin deficiencies like B12
The brains’ sharpness and power of  Cardiovascular diseases
reasoning are lost with time.  Brain tumors
 Unhealthy diet
 Use of excessive medicines like prompt use of
NSAIDs.
 Types of memory disorders
These disorders usually take place when there is the deviation in the purposeful functioning of the
brain’s parts, lacking them behind in storage and retaining the memories.

1. Dementia:
It is one of the most notable and prevailing memory disorders. The Vascular Dementia:
cognitive functions show a decremental curve and are particularly This dementia arises from vascular constriction leading to
related to forgetfulness. These persons show incompetency in life tasks decreased blood flow to the cerebellar and cerebral areas.
having difficulty in completing simple tasks. They too have Strokes and head injuries can cause this type of dementia.
communication constraints and disorientation. The person too might Trouble planning and understanding things are seen.
lose concerns and notable personality changes are seen. Trauma,
stroke, drug reactions, and infections can lead to dementia affecting
people of all ages.
Frontotemporal dementia:
This is the most common type of dementia affecting the frontal and
temporal cortex of the brain. Usually, this type of dementia affects
Dementia with Lewy bodies: the nerve cells within the brain causing them to shrink. Though it
This type of dementia is particularly related to the development occurs in ages between 45 and 60 but may occur in younger
and deposition of abnormal protein types called Lewy bodies. individuals too. This is associated with impaired speech abilities
These abnormal depositions lesson the memory space given known as aphasia. This may lead the person to lose temper easily
rise to deteriorative brain functions. and spring out inappropriate, untimely things.
 The disorder may acquire dysfunction of the overall memory functioning
process or hinder it just a singular place. The overall cycle needs a strict
evaluation to find out the type of disorder prevailing. These disorders may
be mild or severe and can even hit one in the progressive stage.

3. Mild Cognitive 4. Encephalopathy:

2. Alzheimer’s disease: Brain inflammation can lead to major
Brain changes are noticeable features of this Impairment: neurological changes altering the brain
type of memory disorder. It is characterized This is termed as mild because it ranks functions. Immense brain signals deficiency
by two important features. One is the somewhere between normal and severe can give rise to seizures and fits. This is
forms. Mild cognitive impairment can lead coupled with the state of delirium. Viruses
formation of amyloid plaques and the other
to difficulty in memory association and are the major cause of encephalitis.
is the formation of neurofibrillary tangles.
coordination with its counterparts. It is arrested with certain neurological
These both account for brain signals deficits conjugations like Parkinsonism, weakness,
due to a lack of neurotransmitters in the These people are more prone to transform
disease type into Alzheimer’s. Genetic inability to stick to daily assessing
brain. This gives rise to impairments and functioning, tremors and vertigo is
hinders the functioning of daily tasks. predisposition plays a vital role in such
experienced. This can be coupled with the
cognitive impairments to arise.
usual headache productions too.
  We discussed that memory disorders are Basic Memory Tasks
thoroughly catered by symptomatic
treatments. But as scientific studies and Recognition
researches are advancing daily, there is a
more innovative and straightforward Recognition is one of the three basic
approach to this. Drug-induced dementias memory tasks and involves identifying
are more likely to be reversed while objects or events that have been

Added progressive dementias are made to slow

down in its process.
encountered before. It is the easiest of the
memory tasks.

research on  Alzheimer disease and dementia both can

be progressed to slower deterioration rate Recall
the way via DBS. Deep brain stimulation is a
device like a pacemaker. Just like a
pacemaker is used to elicit the SA node,
Recall is the second memory task and
involves bringing something back to mind.
these devices elicit deep brain portions to In recall, you do not immediately recognize
create places for memory holdings and something you have come across before.
integrations. Synaptic transmissions are You have to “search” for it and possibly
accommodated by sending electrical reconstruct it in your mind.
signals to specific brain areas.
 The new medicinal approach has also
come up with the latest advancements. Relearning
There are certain protein cutting drugs on The third basic memory task is relearning.
their way which are going to destroy Relearning involves learning something a
plaque formation and neurofibrillary second time, usually in less time than it was
tangles that are formed. This will lead a originally learned.
path to the most advanced evaluative
treatment for Alzheimer’s.
 How to improve memory

1. Include 5. Eat a
physical
activity in your
healthy diet
daily routine & Sleep well
3. Socialize
regularly

2. Stay 6. Manage
mentally chronic
active conditions
4. Get
organized
 Types of Declarative Memory
 Episodic memory
Declarative memory is part of
It is part of long-term declarative memory,
long-term memory involving and comprises a person’s unique recollection
“knowing that”. of experiences, events, and situations.
Episodic memory has 3 elements: specific
For example, London is the details of the event (time and place), context
capital of England, zebras are (what happened next), and emotions (how you

Declarative animals, and the date of your

birthday.
felt).
Examples of episodic memory include:

Memory  Declarative memory is also

recalling your first abroad; remembering
where you were when you heard that Mr.
Trump had won the 2016 election; and the
known as explicit memory, as memory of your first day in college.
it consists of information that  Sensory Memory
is explicitly stored and
Sensory memory is a mental representation of
involves conscious effort to how environmental events look, sound, feel,
be retrieved. smell and taste. It includes a long-term
component useful for such activities as
recognizing a color or a familiar voice.
However, most vivid details of sensory
memory seem to fade quickly.
 Traumatic memory False memory
Implicit memory Traumatic memories are formed after an False memory refers to cases in which people
Implicit memory is sometimes experience that causes high levels of remember events differently from the way they
referred to as unconscious memory or emotional arousal and the activation of happened or, in the most dramatic case,
automatic memory. Implicit memory stress hormones. These memories become remember events that never happened at all.
consolidated, stable and enduring long term They can be very vivid and held with high
uses past experiences to remember confidence, and it can be difficult to convince
things without thinking about them. memories through the synthesis of proteins
someone that the memory in question is wrong.
only a few hours after the initial
The performance of implicit memory Psychologists have studied false memories in
experience. A study revealed that extra
is enabled by previous experiences, laboratory situations in which events are well
synaptic GABA receptors are involved
no matter how long ago those controlled & it can be known exactly what
when the brain hides the memories of a transpired. Sometimes the problem begins while
experiences occurred. fear inducing event. If a traumatic event the original event is still occurring as in while
For example; recalling the words to a occurs when these receptors are activated the memory is being encoded. If the perception
song when someone sings the first in the brain, the memory cannot be of an event is inaccurate, then it cannot be
few words, riding a bike, driving a assessed until the same receptors are remembered accurately. For example, believing
activated again. For example, witnessing a you started the washing machine when you left
car, buttoning a shirt or brushing your
murder or robbery, being part of a car for work, only to come home and find out that
teeth. accident and abuse in any form. you didn’t.
 Memory in infancy Working memory
Remembering begins with understanding. Working memory is the small amount of
Children learn about memory by talking with information that can be temporarily stored in
Short term memory
Short-term memory is the capacity to store a
others and experiencing life events with their the brain and manipulating that information for
small amount of information in the mind and
environment. If they experience events that the execution of complex cognitive tasks like
keep it readily available for a short period of
they do not understand, they are less likely to language comprehension, learning and
time. It is also known as primary or active
remember them. Infants and small children do reasoning. For example, holding a person’s
memory. Short term memory is very brief and
form memories, this includes implicit memory address in mind while listening to the
limited. Most information is stored for 20-30
(which allows us to carry out tasks without instructions about how to get there. However,
seconds. However, the information in short-
thinking about them) and explicit memories if we forget something that was in our working
term memory is also highly susceptible
(when we consciously remember events that memory then it is not retrievable without
to “interference”. Any new information that
happened to us). However, it is impossible for intervention, intervention might include
enters short-term memory will quickly displace
infants to retain any memories for more than referring to instructions or asking for
old information. For example, you might have
30 seconds. That is because the parts of brain information to be repeated. Physical exercise
a harder time remembering someone's name if
that contribute to long term memory, section of can effectively improve the working memory
you're in a crowded, noisy room.
the frontal lobe and hippocampus do not begin of older adults.
developing until about 9 months of age.
Long term memory Autobiographical memories
Everything that is learned is stored in long- Autobiographical memory is a complex
term memory Capacity of long-term blend of memories of single, recurring, and Memory for images
memory Vast amounts of information may extended events integrated into a coherent
be stored for many years No known limits story of self that is created and evaluated
Imagery is the creation of
to capacity through sociocultural practices. It relies on visual images to represent the
Types of Long-Term Memory autobiographical consciousness, which words that need to be
Episodic memory: Memories for personal emerges by the end of the preschool years; It
events in a specific time and place is formed within social interactions in which remembered. Dual-coding
Semantic memories: Memory for general multiple developing skills are brought to theory holds that memory is
bear on the construction of coherent stories
facts and concepts not linked to a specific
of self and a narrative identity that emerges
enhanced by forming semantic
time
Procedural memories: Motor skills and in adolescence. Through this developmental and visual codes. mental
habits process, autobiographical memories come to imagery can enhance memory.
Emotional memories: Learned emotional serve uniquely socio cultural functions of
defining self and regulating emotion.
responses to various stimuli