CHAPTER 4

(Study Unit 4)
The Medium Access
Control Sublayer
But before, let’s have a recap!
OSI MODEL TCP/IP PROTOCOL
SUITE

PHYSICAL DATA LINK NETWORK TRANSPORT APPLICATION

LAYER LAYER LAYER LAYER LAYER
  Error control.
 Data flow control.
 Framing.

 Dynamic channel

 Bluetooth(802.3)
 Ethernet.(802.3)
allocation.
 Physical addressing

 WiFi (802.3)
In this Lecture:

 Multiple Access Links

 Multiple Access Protocols
• channel partitioning
• random access
• taking turns
 Ethernet & Ethernet Cabling
 Multiple Access Links
Two types of “links.
• Point-to-point
-- point-to-point between an ethernet switch, host
-- PPP(Point-to-Point Protocol)
• Broadcast (shared wire or medium)
-- Old school ethernet
-- Upstream HFC(Hybrid Fiber-Coaxial) in cable-based access
network
-- 802.11 wireless LAN, 4G/4G. Satellite
 Multiple Access Protocols
 Two or more simultaneous transmissions by nodes: interference.
 Collisions will take place if a node receives two or more signals at the same time.
 These Protocols enable multiple users/devices to share a common
communication
 They establish guidelines for users/devices to access and transmit data on a
shared medium, preventing interference and collisions.
 Use distributed algorithms that determines how nodes share a channel.
1 Channel Partitioning
The channel is divided into smaller
"pieces" (time slots, frequency bands, or
codes), and each node is allocated an
exclusive piece for its use.
2 Random Access
Nodes transmit without any prior
coordination, and collisions are
allowed to occur. Protocols are used
to recover from these collisions.
3 Taking Turns
Nodes take turns accessing the
channel, with some nodes being
able to take longer turns based on
their transmission needs.
 The Channel Allocation Problem
 Refers to the task of efficiently assigning communication channels or
frequencies to various devices or users to enable simultaneous and
interference-free communication.
The primary goals include;
 Minimize interference
 Maximum Spectrum Efficiency
 Ensuring fairness in channel allocation
The approaches and algorithms used include;
1. Time Division Multiple Access(TDMA)
 The channel is divided into fixed-length time slots, and each station
is assigned a specific time slot for its exclusive use. Unused slots
remain idle.
2. Frequency Division Multiple Access(FDMA)
 The channel spectrum is divided into frequency bands, and each
station is assigned a fixed frequency band for its exclusive use.
 Unused transmission time in frequency bands goes idle.
 The Channel Allocation Problem
Conceptual diagram demonstrating TDMA

Examples Include:
 GSM(Global System for Mobile Communication).
 Satellite Networks.
 Data networks(WLANs).
 The Channel Allocation Problem
Conceptual diagram demonstrating FDMA

Examples Include:
 Analog Broadcast Radio.
 Television Broadcasting.
 Satellite Communication(TV and Radio)
Dynamic Channel Allocation in LANs and MANs
 DCA optimizes wireless channel allocation in real-time.
 Maximizes spectrum usage, minimizes interference.
 Especially valuable in dynamic wireless settings.

Key characteristics and concepts include:

- Adaptivity: -DCA monitors wireless conditions.

- Spectrum Sensing: DCA Detects and analyses channel quality
- Real-time Decision Making: DCA systems Adapts to current network
conditions..
- Interference Mitigation: DCA Minimizes high interference channels..
 Static Channel Allocation in LANs and MANs
 Static channel allocation assigns fixed channels.
 Channels remain constant over time.
 Typically set during network setup, manual changes required.

Key characteristics and concepts include:

• Fixed assignments remain unchanged unless manually reconfigured.
• Predictable behaviour simplifies channel usage.
• Low overhead due to minimal real-time monitoring.
 Radom Access Protocols
1. Slotted ALOHA
Innovation behind random access.
--- allow collision to happen but recover from them by retransmission of
frames.
--- using randomization in choosing when to retransmit the frames.
Setting entails:
-- all frames are the same size
-- time divided into equal size slots(time to transmit 1 frame)
-- nodes are synchronized.
-- nodes begin transmissions(if any) at slot start times
-- if 2 or more nodes transmit in the slot, collision is detected by the
sender.
Operation involves:
-- when a node has a new frame to send, transmit in the next slot,
-- if there are no collisions = SUCCESS!
-- if there are collisions = node retransmits frame in each subsequent
slot with probability p until success is achieved( this is the use of
An example of slotted aloha.

Pros include: Cons include:

-- Single active node can continuously at full -- Synchronization
rate of channel -- collisions lead to wastage of slots
-- Highly decentralized: only slots in nodes -- idle slots lead to wastage of slots
need to be in sync -- Delays: caused by random backoff
-- simple mechanisms
Applications of ALOHA include; satellite transmissions, wireless sensor networks & some RFID
systems.
2. CSMA( Carrier Sense Multiple access)

--- simple CSMA: listen before transmission

-- if the channel is sensed idle: transmit entire frame
-- if the channel is sensed busy: defer transmission

--- CSMA/CD: CSMA with collision detection

-- collisions detected within a short time
-- colliding transmissions aborted, reducing channel wastage
-- collision detection easy in wired, difficult in wireless networks

Basically, its a set of rules governing how nodes “talk” on an Ethernet network.
- CARRIER – The network medium
- SENSE – The ability to detect
- MULTIPLE ACCESS – All devices have equal access
- COLLISION – What happens if two devices send at once
- DETECTION – How computers handle collisions when they happen(abort
transmission)
How does CSMA/CD operate(Flow chart)
……..the problem with CSMA/CD is
HUB BRIDGE

--- Hub regenerates the signal thus all --- separates the network into 2 collision
nodes get the signal domains.
---- has a signal collision domain --- Uses MAC addresses to deliver data.
---- if more devices are added to the But,
network, more collisions will happen. --- they were so slow, thus causing network
congestion.
--- also limited in the number of ports

THE SOLUTION WAS TO INVENT A SWITCH

16
2. CSMA( Carrier Sense Multiple access)

--- simple CSMA: listen before transmission

-- if the channel is sensed idle: transmit entire frame
-- if the channel is sensed busy: defer transmission

--- CSMA/CA: CSMA with collision avoidance

-- used in wireless networks(WiFi – Wireless Fidelity)
-- manages access to the shared medium to avoid collision
-- design to prevent collisions in wireless communication environments
How CSMA/CA works:
-- Devices listen for carrier signals to check if the medium is busy.
-- Multiple devices share the same wireless channel for communication.
-- It uses Request to Send (RTS) and Clear to Send (CTS) frames.
-- RTS asks for permission to send data, and CTS grants permission.
-- This process reduces the chances of collisions in wireless networks.
-- CSMA/CA is commonly used in IEEE 802.11 Wi-Fi networks.
How does CSMA/CA operate(Flow chart)
 “Taking turns” MAC Protocols
Let’s have a review of the previous two MAC protocols

• Channel portioning MAC protocols.

--share channel efficiently and fairly at high load
--inefficient at low load: delay in channel access, 1/N bandwidth
allocated even if only 1 active node is transmitting.
• Random access MAC protocols.
-- efficient at low load: single node can fully utilize channel
-- high load: collision overhead
• “Taking turns” protocols.(these try to get the best of both worlds)
-- channel allocated explicitly(no collisions)
-- nodes won’t hold channel for long if nothing is being sent
-- two approaches used include: Polling and Token passing.
Polling:
-- Centralized controller(a polling master or station) uses polling
messages to ‘invite’ client nodes to transmit in turn in a round-robin
manner.
-- Protocol is needed for client devices to join and leave a network
-- Concerns may include;
- polling overhead
- access latency(waiting for your turn)
- single point of failure
-- Bluetooth uses polling.
Token passing:
-- control token message explicitly passed from one node to the next
node sequentially.
- transmit while holding the token
- no master node
-- Concerns include:
- join/leave protocol is needed
- control of overhead
- access latency
- single point of failure(token)
 Ethernet Technology Overview
 Developed in early 80s to network computers and other devices in a
local environment.
 Ethernet is a family of networking technologies used in Local Area
Networks (LAN).
 Defined under IEEE 802.2 and 802.3 standards.
 It is the most widely used LAN technology family used today.
 Operates in the data link layer and physical layer.
 Supports data bandwidths of 10, 100, 100, 10000, 40000 and
100000 Mbps(100 Gbps)
 Types of LANs
1. SOHO(Small-Office, Home-office)
 One of the most common local-area deployments is the Small-
Office / Home-Office LAN (SOHO).
 SOHO is a computer network usually built of one Ethernet switch,
one router, and one wireless access point.

 The LAN uses Ethernet cables to connect different end-devices to

one of the switch ports.

 Many networking vendors combine them in one integrated network
device specifically built for the SOHO LAN market.
 Types of LANs
1. Enterprise LANs
 Enterprise networks are much larger in scale than a typical SOHO
LAN.
 Clients typically connect the access switches through the building's
structure cabling and there is wireless access as well.
 Ethernet Physical Layer Standards
1. Enterprise LANs
 Ethernet is not a single thing; it refers to a family of standards.
 Clients typically connect the access switches through the building's
structure cabling and there is wireless access as well.
 The ultimate goal of the Ethernet is to act like a single LAN.
 Much as the data may traverse different types of links (optical and
copper cables, wireless links) with different speeds (from 10Mbps
trough 100Gbps).
 Uses the same data-link layer standard over all links.
Ethernet Physical Layer Standards
 Ethernet Physical Layer Standards
 Physical layer standards deal with sending bits over cables.
 The Ethernet data-link protocols focus on sending frames from
source to destination.
 From a data-link perspective, network devices forward frames in a
consistent manner over all physical links.
 The most common widely used Ethernet standards include:
Ethernet Physical Layer Standards
 Preamble: Synchronization and frame delimiting
 Destination MAC address: Identifies the receiver
 Source MAC address: Identifies the sender
 Type/length field: Indicates the type of data or frame length
 Data: Actual payload of the frame
 CRC (Cyclic Redundancy Check): Error-checking mechanism to
maintain data integrity.
In summary;
 The MAC sublayer is one of the two sublayers in the Data Link Layer
of the OSI model.
 The primary role is to manage access to the shared communication
medium and control the transmission of data frames to prevent
collisions in shared medium environment.
 Formatting data into frames and addressing these frames.
 Handling collisions.
 Filtering frames based on destination addresses.
 Ensuring efficient and orderly communication in shared medium
environments(we look at the various protocols that implements
this).