CATHOLIC

UNIVERSITY
FACULTY OF
EDUCATION
Module Title: Theories and
Practices of Teaching and
Learning (EDU8123)
Module Leader: Dr.Theogene
Hashakimana PhD
 BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF AIMS
AND CONTENT
 This module explains the theories and practices of teaching
and learning. It differentiates different methods of learning
and teaching. The module initiates students in preparing a
lesson and different documents within the class.
Explanations are provided about the role of technology in
learning-teaching process and the place of Distance
learning in Teaching process. Thanks to this module,
students-learning will understand how conducting a
microteaching and using audio visuals materials as didactic
materials.
 LEARNING OUTCOMES
• Having successfully completed the module, students
should be able to:
• Expose and explain basic concepts of general Teaching
and Learning and aim of study;
• Process of learning – teaching
• Different approaches of pedagogy
• Fulfilling different school documents
 CONT……….

• Differentiate concepts relative to pedagogy and teaching

methodology
• Explain different applications of learning – teaching
process and methods
• Realize a critical evaluation of different principles and
methods of learning – teaching.
• Prepare a lesson.
 INDICATIVE CONTENT

• Object, concepts, approaches and methods of learning –

teaching.
• Historical of didactics.
• Preparation of a lesson.
•School documents.
•Teaching – learning process
 CHAP I: 1.0. GENERAL INTRODUCTION

• The study of Theories and Practices of T&L is indispensable to teacher

success. The act of teaching, the consideration of teaching and learning
is utterly at center stage…What we learn in pedagogy is that teaching is
a complex enterprise requiring an instructor`s knowledge, perception of
students` needs, and real willingness to adjust and adopt…
• The faculty of education aims to deserve knowledgeable teachers who
are experts in their fields, who know what they are teaching.
• It aims to deserve knowledgeable teachers who know how to teach, how
to reach each and every one of them, how to make learning effective,
individual, and long lasting (Christenbury Leila, 2002
 CONT………..
• How well we cope in life, as individuals, as communities, as nations
or as global humankind, depends essentially on our knowledge,
skills, creativity and attitudes. Teachers are critical in helping us to
develop each of these qualities.
• So, ultimately, our future depends on the expertise and
commitment of teachers (Margaret Brown in Foreword to 4th
edition of Becoming a teacher).
• We prepare teachers not only to fit well into the way schools
currently operate, but also to have the ability to adjust to future
change.
 CONT…….
• New teachers should be competent initiators of change, able to critique
current practice and to plan and undertake innovation…Teaching is
skilled profession.
• It requires not just the expertise to respond to routine classroom
situations, but deployment of a wide variety of skills in order to deal with
any specific problems that may arise… teachers need to develop their
knowledge on several fronts : deep and connected knowledge of their
subject areas, knowledge of how students learn, and how they develop
specific attitudes and behaviours, knowledge of the most effective ways of
teaching, both at the general level and at the level of the specific concept
or skill, including available teaching resources.
 1.1. SOME CONCEPTS IN TEACHING-
LEARNING PROCESS.

• In this section, we look at certain concepts related or often used in

teaching-learning process.
Pedagogy and Andragogy :
"Pedagogy" literally means "leading children." It is also seen as the
art and science of teaching; instruction in teaching methods.
“Andragogy" was a term coined to refer to the art/science of
teaching adults.
•Malcolm Knowles and others theorized that methods used to teach
children are often not the most effective means of teaching adults.
 CONT……

In the modern practice of Adult Education (1970), Knowles

defined andragogy as "an emerging technology for adult
learning." His four andragogical assumptions are that
adults:
1) Move from dependency to self-directedness;
2) Draw upon their bank of experience for learning;
3) Are ready to learn when they assume new roles; and
4) Want to solve problems and apply new knowledge
immediately.
 1.1.1.Andragogy Asserts that
Adults Learn Best When
 They feel the need to learn
 They have some input into what, why, and how they learn
 The learning’s content and processes have a meaningful relationship to the
learner’s past experience.
 Their experience is used as a learning resource (see Bloom`s taxonomy)
 What is to be learned relates to the individual’s current life situation and tasks.
 They have as much autonomy as possible
 The learning climate minimizes anxiety and encourages freedom to experiment.
 CONT……..
• ACTIVE TEACHING: Instructional method containing five instructional
phases: the opening, development, independent work, homework and review.
•AUTHENTIC LEARNING: learning that occurs when students engage in real
experiences, for example learning library skills in the library rather than
reading about them.
•LEARNING ABILITIES: classified by Sternberg as memory, analysis,
creativity, and application.
•CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT: using the provisions and procedures to create
and to maintain an environment in which teaching and learning can occur.
 1.1.2. VARIOUS LEARNING AND
TEACHING THEORIES

The humanistic approach: Studies human values, subjective experience

and promotes the uniqueness of each individual.
• Humanistic approach takes a holistic view of development of
a person, and encourages psychological health through the pursuit
of self-growth and understanding.
• Summary of the humanistic view of the person
 A person is more than just a sum of his parts. A person should
be viewed holistically.
 A person does not live alone. People are social by nature and
their interpersonal interactions are a part of their development.
 CONT…..
• Humanist Learning Theory places a heavier emphasis on
the learner themselves and their untapped potential rather
than the methods of learning or the materials being taught.
• Built on the premise that humans are fundamentally good and
will act appropriately if their basic needs are met, HLT
prioritizes meeting the unique emotional and academic needs
of each learner so that they are empowered to take greater
control over their own education.
Humanism Founded by pioneers like Carl Rogers, James F. T. Bugental,
and Abraham Maslow (whose famous “Hierarchy of Needs” you’re likely
already familiar with), Humanist Learning Theory (HLT) is a learner-
centric approach to education.
Humanist Learning Theory places a heavier emphasis on the learner
themselves and their untapped potential rather than the methods of
learning or the materials being taught. Built on the premise that humans
are fundamentally good and will act appropriately if their basic needs are
met, HLT prioritizes meeting the unique emotional and academic needs of
each learner so that they are empowered to take greater control over their
own education.
 CONT ……….
 A person is aware. People have an awareness of their existence and themselves. How a
person reacts to a situation is in part influenced by previous events. Future responses
will be influenced by past and present experiences.
 A person has free will. People are aware of themselves and make conscious choices.
Animals, unlike humans, are driven by instincts and do not reach a conscious level of
choice.
 A person is consciously deliberate. Persons will seek certain things for themselves
such as value or meaning in their life. How a person seeks meaning or value results in a
personal identity. This personal identity is what distinguishes one person from another.
 CONT………
• Different viewpoints have been described on how each of these stages can
be achieved. Maslow (1954: Motivation and personality, New York: Harp
& Row), one of the most influential humanist psychologists, put forward
the idea that self-understanding consists in satisfying needs presented in
hierarchical order.
• Because these needs are hierarchical, the higher need cannot be
addressed until the lower ones have been satisfied.
• This theory has been very popular with explanations of motivation at work
and elsewhere, mainly because it is able to explain why it is that one is
never satisfied. Once a need has been fulfilled, a higher order need is
activated.
 CONT……
Self-actualisation: Relising one’s full
potential
Aesthetic needs: beauty, order,
symmetry
Cognitive needs: curiosity, exploration, meaning
& knowledge
Esteem needs: respect from others and self-
esteem
 Behavioural Approach

•Focuses on studying observable behavior that can be measured

systematically.
•Behaviourism emerged in 1920s and became dominant until 1950s
especially in American psychology.
•At the time, Wundt (considered by many to be the father of experimental
psychology) and others with him were studying mental life through
introspection, focusing on the description of mental images and feelings.
•Watson (considered to be the father of behaviourism) thought that this
way of studying psychology was inconsistent, subjective and confusing.
Founded by John B. Watson (but widely associated with
Ivan Pavlov and B.F. Skinner), Behaviorism is the idea that
like Bandura’s Social Learning Theory children learn by
observing the behavior of others, whether adults and
authority figures or friends and peers their own age.

In Behaviorism, the learner’s mind is a “blank slate” ready

to absorb knowledge and repetition and reinforcement play
a key role in communicating with students.
For instance, the teacher will use either negative or
positive reinforcement, which respectively means
subtracting (“negative”) or adding (“positive”)
something, in order to reinforce the desired behavior
(or discourage an undesired behavior).

An example of positive reinforcement might be

rewarding or praising a behavior like volunteering
during group discussions.
 CONT…..

•The behaviorist approach, inspired by Pavlov’s famous experiments

salivating dogs, focuses exclusively on the systematic study of
observable and measurable behaviors and discounts all
subjective and invisible mental activities.
•Behaviorists established a long tradition of laboratory experiments
with both animals and humans, and focused on learning, defined as
the acquisition of new observable behavioural through the laws
of association (S – R). Association is an essential concept to the
theory and so are the concepts of stimulus (pl. stimuli) and response.
 CONT…….
•This is why this approach is also sometimes called S-R psychology and
behaviorists are sometimes called associationists. Experiments by
behaviourists identified conditioning as a universal learning process.
•Two types of conditioning were studied: a) Classical conditioning
occurs when learning is the result of the association between
unnatural but conditioned (learned) stimulus and a natural
reflex. The natural reflex is then called a (conditioned) response.
•b) Operant conditioning is the learning process by which the
consequences of a response affect the chance that it will occur
again in the future.
 CONT………..
•Behaviourism received much criticism, including
that the approach disregards the activities of the
mind, which should be at the Centre of the study of
the psyche.
•On top of this criticism, it used methods that are
today ethically questionable.
•The humanistic and cognitivist approaches sprang
in part from the criticism behaviorism and its
 THE COGNITIVIST APPROACH

•Studies the active internal nature of higher mental processes.

Cognition refers to that are called the higher mental activities, which
include thinking, remembering, learning and using language.
•Thinking may be described as awareness of mental actions,
monitoring and controlling learning processes, which varies from
situation to situation, and directly affects how individuals behave
in a given situation.
•The cognitive approach to the study of human behaviour focuses on
the understanding and treatment of concepts and information
perceived from the environment.
Introduced during the middle of the 20th century, Cognitivism
shifts away from Behaviorism to place a heavier emphasis on the
internal thoughts of the observer, as opposed to merely observing
others’ behavior and responding to stimuli. In contrast to
Behaviorism, Cognitivism holds that learning chiefly takes place
while the student is working to break down and organize new
information in their mind.Journaling is frequently suggested as a
helpful classroom exercise that uses the principles of
Cognitivism. We’ll explore some additional ways of applying
Cognitivism and other learning theories at the end of this guide.
 CONT………
• It aims to explore the inner structure and organization of the mind, and
the active processes used by a thinker or a learner.
• To the cognitive psychologist, behaviour is not specifiable simply in terms
of observable events (as it is for the behaviourists), but invites
examination at the level of internal mental events, such as
representations, beliefs, intentions, etc.
• The general issues and problems within the area to attention, perception,
information processing, memory, imagery, concept formation, etc.
understanding language use and acquisition (i.e. psycholinguistics) is also
studied from this perspective, as it is essential to the examination of how
we acquire knowledge.
 CONT……
•Piaget is among the theorists who have marked this field with his
work on the cognitive development of the child.
•How do children develop cognitively?
•Most developmental psychologists believe nature and nurture
combine to influence cognitive development.
•Continuous theories of development focus on social experiences that
a child goes through, whereas discontinuous theories emphasize
inborn factors rather than environmental influence.
 How did Piaget view Cognitive
development?

• Piaget postulated four stages of cognitive development through

which people progress between birth and young adulthood. People
adjust their schemes for dealing with the world trough assimilation
and accommodation.
• Piaget`s developmental stages include the sensorimotor stage
(birth to 2 years of age), the preoperational stage (2 to 7 years of
age), and the concrete operational stage (ages 7 to 11).
• During the formal operational stage (age 11 to adulthood), young
people develop the ability to deal with hypothetical situations and
to monitor their own thinking.
 CONT………
• Piaget`s theory has been criticized to neglect social and
environment influence on cognitive development.
• Nevertheless, it has important implications for education.
• Piagetian principles are embedded in the curriculum and
in effective teaching practices, and Piaget- influenced
concepts such as cognitive constructivism and
developmentally appropriate instruction have been
important in education reform.
How did Vygotsky view cognitive development?

• He viewed cognitive development as an outgrowth of social

development through interaction with others and the
environment. Assisted learning takes place in childrens` zone of
proximal development (ZPD), where they can do new tasks that
are within their capabilities only with a teacher`s or peer`s
assistance.
• Children internalize learning, develop self-regulation, and solve
problems through vocal or silent private speech. Teachers
provide interactional contexts, such as cooperative learning, and
scaffolding.
1.1.3.MEMORY AS AN IMPORTANT COGNITIVIST
FACTOR INFLUENCING LEARNING

•Memory is defined as a mental system for receiving,

organizing, altering, and recovering information.
•The material on which we think and reason is constituted mostly
by memories.If nothing remains of past experiences, learning
would be impossible. Memory is the store-house of information
from which we can recall past events. we are in a position to use the
concept of time, referring the present to the past and making
forecasts for the future.
•Every new situation recalls to our mind similar situations
experienced in the past and their effect on us.
 CONT….

• Remembering means showing in the present

responses some signs of responses learnt previously.
• Many people think memory is “a dusty storehouse of
facts”. In reality memory is an active system that stores,
organizes, alters, and recovers information (Baddeley,
1996). In some ways, memory is like a computer.
Incoming information is first encoding, or changed into
a usable form
 CONT……..
• This step is like typing data into a computer. Next, information is stored
in the system. Finally, memories must be retrieved, or taken out of
storage, to be useful.
• If you’re going to remember all of the 1000 new terms on your Pedagogy
exam, you must successfully encode, store and retrieve them.
• Memory is the mental system for receiving, encoding (converting
information into a form in which it will be retained in memory),
storing (holding information in memory for later use), retrieving
(recovering information from storage in memory) information.
 STAGES OF MEMORY

Psychologists have identified three stages of memory.

Information we want to store must pass through all three
stages.
Sensory Memory
Short Term memory (Working memory)
Long Term Memory
 Sensory Memory.

•It is the first stage of memory, which holds an exact record of incoming information for a few seconds or
less.

•Example. Let’s say a friend asks you to pick up several things at a market. How will you
remember them? Information first enters sensory memory, which can hold an exact copy of
that you see or hear, for a few seconds or less. For instance, look at a flower and then close
your eyes. An icon (EYE-kon), or fleeting mental image, of the flower will persist for about
one-half second. Similarly, when you hear information, sensory memory stores it as an echo
for up to 2 seconds. An echo is a brief flurry of activity in the auditory system). In general,
sensory memory holds information just long enough to move it to the second memory system.
 Short- term memory (STM).

• Not everything we see or hear stays in memory. Imagine that a radio is playing
in the background as your friend reads his shopping list. Will you remember
what the announcer says, too? Probably not, because selective attention
(focused on a selected portion of sensory input) controls what information
moves on to short-term memory.

• STM holds small amounts of information for relatively brief periods. By

paying attention to your friend, you will place his shopping list in short-term
memory (while you ignore the voice on the radio saying…).
 CONT……
•STM can be stored as images. But more often they are stored
phonetically (by sound), especially in recalling words and letters.
•STM is a temporary storehouse for small amounts of information. For
example, when you dial a phone number; or briefly remember a
shopping list…
•STM provides an area of working memory where we do much of our
thinking. It acts as a sort of “scratchpad”. It briefly holds information
while you carry out other mental activities such as doing mental
arithmetic. That why is it called working memory.
 CONT…..

•STM is very sensitive to interruption or

interference.

•Human working memory can handle only small

amounts of information. It is very difficult to do
more than one task at a time in STM.
 Long-Term Memory (LTM).

•It is the memory system used for relatively permanent storage of

meaningful information.
•If STM is brief, easily interrupted, and limited in “size”, we need
LTM for remembering for long periods of time.
•Even if it is possible that LTM can be encoded as sounds, typically,
information in LTM is stored on the basis of meaning and
importance, not by sound. LTM Use coding systems to stores
information. If each information stored will coded depending to
the values you assigned to them.
 1.1.4.MORE VOCABULARY ABOUT MEMORY

•Maintenance rehearsal. Silently repeating or mentally reviewing

information to hold it in STM.
•Elaborative rehearsal. Rehearsal that links new information with existing
memories and knowledge. It makes information more meaningful. It is a far
better way to create lasting memories. It links new information to memories
that are already in LTM.
•Constructive processing. Reorganizing or updating memories on the basis
of logic, reasoning, or the addition of new information. Network model. A
model of memory that views it as an organized system of linked information.
 CONT………
Re-integrating memory: it is the reconstruction of an old
experience on the basis of partial indications. Something of today
makes us “recall” an episode of the past what we reconstruct not
only in its content, but also with relation to time and space.
•Recognition: it is the sensation of an experienced familiarity
when we notice once again something that was already seen
previously: “that song is familiar to me, what is called?”, “I am
sure we have met before, but I don’t remember where” (there is
the recognition but not the integrating memory).
 SUMMARY
• To summarize, forming and using memories is an active,
creative and highly personal process. Our memories are
colored by emotions, judgments, and quirks of
personality. If you and friend were lashed together, and
you went through life side by side, you would still have
different memories. What we remember depends on what
we pay attention to, what we regard as meaningful or
important, and what we feel strongly about.
 What causes forgetting?

 Forgetting and memory were extensively studied by Herman EBBINGHAUS. His

work shows that forgetting is most rapid immediately after learning (the curve of
forgetting).
 Failure to encode information is a common cause of forgetting.
 Forgetting in sensory memory and STM probably reflects decay of memory traces
in the nervous system. Decay or disuse of memories may also account for some
LTM loss.
 Much forgetting in both STM and LTM can be attributed to interference.
 When recent learning interferes with retrieval of prior learning, retroactive
interference has occurred. If old learning interferes with new learning, proactive
interference has occurred.
 How can memory be improved?

 Memory can be improved by using feedback, recitation, and rehearsal; by

selecting and organizing information, and by using the progressive part
method, practice, over-learning, and active search strategies. Effects of
serial position, sleep, review, cues, and elaboration should also be kept in
mind when studying or memorizing.
 Mnemonic systems use mental images and unusual associations to link new
information with familiar memories already stored in LTM. Such strategies
give information personal meaning and make it easier to recall.
 Constructivism According to Constructivist Learning Theory, or CLT,
students learn new information by building upon or in other words, constructing
knowledge they’ve already gained. This represents a more active approach to
learning, as opposed to an approach like Behaviorism, where students arguably
take a more passive role in learning.

Cognitive Constructivism is associated with Jean Piaget, while Social Constructivism

is linked to pioneer Lev Vygotsky. You can read more about the differences between
Social and Cognitive Constructivist.
 Connectivism Connectivism, as we mentioned above, has been called
a learning theory for the 21st century. But, other than its relatively recent
introduction as a theory of learning, what makes Connectivism so useful and
relevant to the modern student — and educator?

Critically, Connectivist Learning Theory makes effective use of technology, which is

an essential tool for learning particularly among Generation Z students and future
generations. Connectivism also places a strong emphasis on the ability to find and sift
through information in order to conduct reliable research. Some examples of a
Connectivist approach to teaching might be to have your students write a blog or
launch a podcast together activities that merge technology with group and community
interaction.
Supplemental Learning Theories: There are many
additional learning theories that educators may be
interested in exploring further. One example is andragogy
— or, in everyday language, adult education — which
follows different rules and principles than pedagogy
(education for children). For example, pedagogy involves
the teacher as a central leader of classroom activities,
whereas andragogy leans more heavily toward self-
direction and student-led learning.
Another theory to consider exploring further is the “Learning as
a Network” or LaaN Theory, which one 2012 study defined as a
“new learning theory characterized by the convergence of KM
[Knowledge Management] and TEL [Technology-Enhanced
Learning] within a learner-centric knowledge environment.”
Choosing an instructional method then requires the instructor to
consider at least three main aspects: 1) the learning objectives,
to make sure the method is appropriate, 2) the nature of the
materials and 3) how we want students to interact with this
information.
1.1.5.The best practices of learning
1.Encourages Student – Instructor Contact
2.Encourages Cooperation Among Students
3.Encourages Active Learning
4.. Gives Prompt Feedback
5.Emphasizes Time on Task
6. Communicates High Expectations
6.Respects Diverse Talents and Ways of Learning
In education, the selection of a method and strategy for teaching can
depend on various factors, including the subject matter, the age and
developmental level of the students, the learning goals, and the resources
available. Some common criteria for selecting a teaching method and
strategy include the alignment with learning objectives, the engagement
of students, the promotion of critical thinking and problem-solving
skills, the consideration of diverse learning styles, and the use of
appropriate technology and resources. Additionally, the method and
strategy should be flexible and adaptable to meet the needs of individual
students and the evolving educational landscape.
 Chapter Two: TYPOLOGY OF TEACHING METHODS

• 2.0: Introduction
• Methods are ways of doing things. In any human endeavour where results
are expected, there must be ways of attaining the goals.
• The various educational goals (or curriculum objectives) have resulted in the
adoption of various methods in dissemination of knowledge in class settings.
• For effective teaching-learning of any subject, a variety of methods need to
be brought to play.
 2.1.Traditional teaching method/Teacher centered method

Characteristics of teacher-centered approach:

• Teacher is more active than learners and he/she determines what is to be learned, the methods to
be adopted and the pace at which learning should take place.
• Learners receive knowledge from the teacher and only listen to, observe, make notes and
occasionally answer a few questions (teachers act as a vital link between the learners and content).
• Incorporation of little instructional resources to the lesson(s).
• The teacher views learners as a homogenous group and not as individuals with diverse differences.
 CONT………..
• Desks/tables and chairs are arranged in straight rows, with learners facing the
writing board to get the teacher’s presentation.
• Minimal or totally no encouragement of group work during the instructional process.
Advantages of Teacher-centered approach
• Saves time, thus enabling the teacher to cover a substantial part of the syllabus.
• Requires few personnel thus cheaper economically as few teachers are used.
• Enables the teacher’s work of maintaining class control, be easy as one is able to
monitor what all the learners are doing.
 CONT………..
• Creates uniformity in the information delivered as it is done by one person.
• Provides more accurate information as it is a product of careful research and wide reading
by the teacher.
Situations which call for the use of this approach are:
• When the teacher has a lot of information to relay to the learners.
• When the information to be passed to the learners is of theoretical nature.
• Where there are inadequate instructional resources. When there is limited time to pass the
information to the learners.
• Where there are large classes.
 Forms of Teacher Centered Teaching

1) It is a lecture method ( learning by listening): Lecturing is certainly the most familiar

method. This is what we usually mean when we talk about the “traditional method”.
Typically, the teacher stands in front of the class, he/she speaks and the students take notes.
• The lecture can be interrupted by questions.
• The teacher controls everything during his/her lecture which takes the aspect of a
conference.
• It becomes more important as the size of the group increases.
• In fact, the lecture becomes more authoritative, the students listen passively and they are
not fully involved in the learning process.
 CONT………..
• In a small group, the learner feels free to ask questions or to make comments during
the lecture: it is therefore an informal lecture.
• In a big group, the learners are often more reluctant, they hesitate to interrupt the
teacher’s lecture by asking questions or giving comments.
• The use of visual aids to supplement the lecture is a factor which enriches the lecture.
• Knowing the fact that we remember only 20% of what we hear and 50% of what we
see and hear, the teacher should resort to these means, making use of visual aids in
addition to what the learners hear. Therefore, the percentage of information that the
learner loses will decrease considerably
Advantages and disadvantages of lecture method

Lecture presents the following advantages:

• It is appropriate to teach large groups (hundreds of students)
• It facilitates communication in a short period of time
• Both the teacher and learners feel more secure:
Disadvantages) of a lecture:
• Lecture presentation does not allow learners to share their knowledge and experience
• If lecture is given too much importance or if it is too long, it can be boring
 CONT………….
•During the lecture, it is not easy to evaluate the content which the learners have
understood and others which require more details.
•Lecture relies more on teachers and less on learners’ competence and skills
Lecture does not easily allow to achieve major psychomotor or cognitive objectives
•Lecture can develop a feeling of isolation among learners and between teacher and
learner.
 CONT………..
•In lecture, learners do not take full responsibility for their learning. They develop a
negative attitude of listening passively, they do not develop critical thinking and they
do not develop any initiative.
2) It is an inciting teaching method (questions-answers method)
The questions asked by the teacher check or assess whether the learners have
understood or facilitate understanding/learning.
Several studies have shown however that the learners ask very few questions
compared to the great number of questions the teachers ask to their learners.
 CONT…………….
• Some studies have established that:
 In one-hour class, the teacher has asked about 84 questions while learners have asked 2
questions only.
A learner asks one question per month throughout the whole school year.
3) Sometimes teacher use both lecture and demonstration
Demonstration means “to show”. In lecture method, the teacher just talks but in
demonstration method, he shows or illustrates certain phenomena, concept, or principles.
Demonstration provides concrete experiences to students. Thus, it helps to understand
abstract ideas to students.
 CONT…………….
How to use this method?
•When using this method, the teacher should keep in mind the following
characteristics of a good demonstration:
a) It should be clearly visible to all students, even to the back benchers.
b) If there are more than one demonstration in a lesson, they should be done
in proper logical sequence.
c) In a demonstration only one idea should be taken at a time. Too many
ideas in one demonstration may confuse the students.
 2.2. Active methods (Students centered method)

2.2.1 Birth of new teaching methods

• Since the end of the 19th, century, the traditional method faced an opposition of a
very strong international trend of the New School.
• Then, the 1st half of the 20th century was dominated by the confrontation and
opposition of the defenders. Despite some differences among their ideas, M.
Montessori, J.Dewey, O. Decroly, E. Claparede, R. Cousinet and all their disciples
accuse the traditional school of abusively being coercive and ignoring the
psychology of the child.
 CONT’
Today, “active methods” are the methods that really involve the
learner; his/her effort to develop knowledge from the case study,
games, the contexts suggested by the learner or the teacher whereby
the learner’s role is particularly significant.
According to modern pedagogy,
The child has gifts, needs, intellectual curiosities, creative energy
and assimilation which must occur from the inside to outside.
Education must comply the spontaneity of the child;
Education must be done in an atmosphere of joy;
Education must always take as its starting point the natural and
social environment of the child.
 CONT…………
• The teacher’s role in a student-centered learning is to facilitate and to guide. The students are in
control of their own learning and the power and responsibility are the students concern.
• Learning may be independent, collaborative, cooperative and competitive. The utilization and
processing of information is more important than the basic content.
• Learning takes place in relative contexts and students are engaged in constructing their own
knowledge.
• For this method, the teacher’s involvement would include questioning, disciplining, guiding,
validating, monitoring, motivating, encouraging, suggesting, modeling and clarifying.
 2.2.1. Psychological foundations of active methods

Taking into account the child cognitive development

• While Piaget and Vygotsky may differ on how they view cognitive development in
children, both offer educators good suggestions on how to teach in a
developmentally appropriate manner. We will focus on 3 stages of cognitive
development, which correspond to the school period. We will realize how, at each
stage, a child acts on his own environment.
• At about 2 years of age, and until about 7 years of age, the child is considered to
be in the preoperational stage. This stage has some characteristics:
 CONT’

 the child has not yet mastered the ability of mental operations.
 The child in the preoperational stage does not have the ability to think through
actions (Woolfolk, 2004).
 Children in this stage are considered to be egocentric.
 Because of egocentricism, children in this stage engage in collective monologues,
in which each child is talking, but not interacting with the other children.
 Another characteristic of the preoperational stage is the irreversibility which is
the inability to think backward, from the end to the beginning.
 CONT’

• Because the child has not yet mastered mental operations, the teacher
must demonstrate his or her instructions, because the child cannot yet
think through processes. The use of visual aids, while keeping
instructions short would most benefit the child in this stage. Hands-on
activities also aid with learning future complex skills. The teacher must
be sensitive to the fact that these children, according to Piaget, are still
egocentric and may not realize that not everyone shares the same view
(Woolfolk, 2004).
 CONT’

Implications in teaching.
Because the child has not yet mastered mental operations, the teacher must
demonstrate his or her instructions, because the child cannot yet think through
processes. The use of visual aids, while keeping instructions short would most
benefit the child in this stage. Hands-on activities also aid with learning future
complex skills, as the text mentions, reading comprehension. The teacher must
be sensitive to the fact that these children, according to Piaget, are still
egocentric and may not realize that not everyone shares the same view
(Woolfolk, 2004).
 CONT’
The concrete operational stage occurs between the ages of
seven to eleven years. Students in the later elementary years,
according to Piaget, learn best through hands-on discovery
learning, while working with tangible objects.
• Reasoning processes also begin to take shape in this stage.
Piaget stated that the three basic reasoning skills acquired
during this stage were conservation, compensation, and identity.
• By this time, children understand that the amount of something
remains the same even if its appearance changes (conservation)
and one action can cause changes in another (compensation).
 CONT’

• Identity is the idea that for every action or operation there is another operation that
leaves it unchanged. For example, adding or taking away nothing produces no change.
• The child has also an understanding of the concept of seriation which is consisting in
ordering objects by certain physical aspects. The child is also able to classify items by
focusing on a certain aspect and grouping them accordingly (Woolfolk, 2004).
Pedagogical implications
• Teaching children in the concrete operations stage involves hands-on learning, as
well. Students are encouraged to perform experiments and testing of objects.
• By performing experiments and solving problems, students develop logical and
analytical thinking skills (Woolfolk, 2004).
• Teachers should provide short instruction and concrete examples and offer
time for practice.
• With skills such as classification, compensation, and seriation developing during
this stage, teachers should provide ample opportunities to organize groups of
objects on "increasingly complex levels" (Woolfolk, 2004).
Piaget's final stage of cognitive development is formal operations, occurring from
age eleven years.
 CONT’

People who reach this stage are able to think abstractly. They have achieved skills
such as inductive and deductive reasoning abilities. People in the formal operations
stage utilize many strategies and resources for problem solving.
They have developed complex thinking and hypothetical thinking skills. Through
hypothetico-deductive reasoning, one is able to identify the factors of a problem, and
deduce solutions (Woolfolk, 2004).
People in this stage also imagine the best possible solutions or principles, often
through the ability to think ideally (Woolfolk, 2004). The acquisition of meta-cognition
(thinking about thinking) is also a defining factor of those people in formal operations.
 CONT’
• Another psychologist Lev Vygotsky offered an alternative to Piaget's stages of cognitive
development.
• Vygotsky's Sociocultural theory of development became a major influence in the field of
psychology and education.
• This theory stated that children learn through social interactions and their culture.
• Through what Vygotsky called "dialogues," we socially interact and communicate with
others to learn the cultural values of our society.
• Vygotsky also believed that "human activities take place in cultural settings and cannot
be understood apart from these settings". Therefore, our culture helps shape our cognition
 CONT’

• Through these social interactions, we move toward more

individualized thinking.
• The co-constructed process involves people interacting during
shared activities, usually to solve a problem.
• When the child receives help through this process, he or she may
be able to utilize better strategies in the future, when a similar
problem arise.
• The constructed dialogues lead to internalization, which in turn
leads one to independent thinking.
• Scaffolding is another Vygotskian principle for the sociocultural
perspective.
 CONT’

• Scaffolding involves providing the child with hints or clues for problem solving in
order to allow the student to better approach the problem in the future.
Pedagogical implications
• Teaching those in the formal operations stage involves giving students the
opportunity to advance their skills in scientific reasoning and problem solving, as
begun in the concrete operations stage.
• Students should be offered open-ended projects in which they explore many
solutions to problems. Opportunities to explore hypothetical possibilities should be
granted to these students often.
 CONT’

• A teacher utilizing Vygotskian methods for teaching would be a very active member in
her/his student's education.
• The teacher would apply the technique of scaffolding by providing assistance and
offering feedback when relating new information (Woolfolk, 2004). Teachers should
make sure that students are provided adequate tools for learning.
• Students should be taught how to use tools such as the computer, resource books, and
graphs in order to better utilize these tools in the future (Woolfolk, 2004). Another
Vygotskian principle for teaching involves the zone of proximal development. Like
Piaget, Vygotsky believed that there were some problems out of a child's range of
understanding.
 CONT’

• However, in contrast, Vygotsky believed that given proper help and

assistance, children could perform a problem that Piaget would consider
to be out of the child's mental capabilities. The zone is the area at which a
child can perform a challenging task, given appropriate help (Woolfolk,
2004). Teaching in the Vygotskian method would also incorporate group
or peer learning (Woolfolk, 2004). By having students tutor each other
through dialogues and scaffolding, the students can begin to internalize
the new information and come to a better understanding of the material.
 2.2.2. SUPPLEMENTAL TEACHING METHODS

• Flipped classroom,
• Project method of teaching,
• Cooperative learning,
• Interdisciplinary teaching
• Personalized learning,
• Student centric approach;
• Active learning,
• Differentiation
 Experiential learning,
 Kinesthetic learning,
 Group learning,
 Independent learning,
 Metacognition,
 Peer learning,
 Classroom technology,
 Demonstrator,
 Direct Instruction,
 Expeditionary Learning,
 Facilitator,
 Feedback,
 Gamification
 ,Hybrid,
 Lecture method
2.3. Best Practices of teaching
2.3.1.What is effective teaching?
Effective teaching is a term used to describe the knowledge, strategies
and conduct of a successful educator. It's the ability to make a positive
impact on a student's life and academic career, including the capacity to
teach important skill sets, introduce new concepts and manage any
classroom concerns. Educators typically strive to use effective teaching
practices to help their students learn at a consistent rate and to increase
their own understanding of the field.
Using effective teaching practices helps students achieve their
learning goals. Effective teaching can help you assess the needs of
your students, allowing you to understand which classroom
strategies may be helpful. You can also lead more constructive one-
on-one meetings with students to learn the best ways to support
them.
Increases student engagement in the classroom. Good practices can
help you design interesting lesson plans and encourage an overall
enthusiasm for the material. Effective teaching methods may also
help you form positive relationships with students.
Here is a list of effective teaching practices that can help you develop your
skills:
1. Enjoy the field of education
2. Create a positive learning environment
3. Connect with students
4. Be prepared
5. Manage a weekly schedule
6. Use clear and simple language
7. Set reasonable expectations
8. Adapt to different circumstances
9. Find resources 10. Offer practical applications
11.Reflect on practices 12. Have a sense of humor
 CHAPTER THREE: SOME CRITERIA FOR
CHOOSING SUITABLE TEACHING METHODS

3.1 Knowing who the learners are

The learner is the main focus of the teacher when deciding the best teaching method
to use., it is necessary to know the types of leaners you have in your class, to keep in
mind the learner’s needs, area of interest, age, aptitudes, preferred style of learning
and study timetable.
Types of learners
• Since students are centers of teaching/learning processes, teachers must be able to
identify the different types of learners in order to be able to help them.
 CONT…………….
• According to Rasaq A. O. (2003), understanding the different types of learners will
be of immense value in assisting the teachers in preparing suitable materials to
cater for the varying learning needs. There are mainly three categories of learners
and they are: Slow Learners (Backward Learners); Gifted and Talented Learners
(Fast Learners); Normal Learners (Average Learners)
• The slow learners and the gifted learners are highly problematic whereas the
normal learners need to be stimulated and encouraged to make maximum use of
their potential and to develop their individual talents.
 CONT’

• The fourth group of learners are those that are physically disabled. These
disabilities have nothing to do with their intellectual capacity to learn. They are
characterized by different types of physical deformities like deafness, blindness
and lameness.
Slow learners
• Slow learners are the category of students who lag behind in virtually all that they
do, and especially in their school work. They exhibit numerous learning
difficulties that seem to defy all learning methodologies and procedures. This
category of learners is made up of mentally retarded and the learning disabled
 The characteristics of slow learners

• The slow learners have a short attention span, that is, they cannot
concentrate for long.
• They have short memory and they don’t remember easily what
they have been taught.
• The slow learners are always bored and generally have no interest
in learning.
• They have poor communication skills. They are poor in both oral
and written languages.
• They have poor eye-hand coordination. They cannot see properly
 CONT’

• Their numeric ability is very low and they are very poor in calculation.
• They have poor social interaction and cannot get along with others easily.
In fact they exhibit aggressive behaviour most of the time.
• They score low in all types of tests and assessment.
Gifted and talented learners
• The gifted and talented learners are those whose intellectual abilities are
exceptionally and constantly outstanding.
 The Characteristics of gifted and talented learners

• They rank high in academic achievement and cover a wide ground within a limited
period of time.
• They are fast thinking, highly creative and imaginative with very high constructive
abilities. They have very good cordial relationships. They make friends easily.
• They have outstanding leadership qualities and can work well under pressure.
Normal learners
Majority of learners can be classified as norma learners, that is to say that majority of
learners are of average abilities.
 Characteristics of normal learners

• They manifest average ability.

• They have their own learning problems like lateness to school, truancy, wrong peer
group etc.
• They manifest giftedness when faced with challenges.
• They are mostly invariably good in all subjects i.e. science, languages, arts and even
sporting activities.
Learners needs and interests.
Learners have several needs such as socialization, self-esteem, etc. They also have their
areas of interest. Learners can be more motivated in some contexts than in others.
 CONT’

They may prefer to express themselves orally or in writing, they may prefer lectures to
question and answer method or group work, etc. Bright students for instance, prefer well-
structured presentations while dull students prefer socratic questioning. In the same way,
some methods are good for upper secondary schools and university students.
Number of learners ( class size).
The number of learners is also a significant factor. The psychology of a large group differs
from that of a smaller group. The same learners can adopt different behaviors according to
whether they ate in large group or small group. For example, the one who expresses
himself/herself readily in front of 8 classmates may hesitate to do it in front of about 30.
• The size of the group is undoubtedly
CONT’ one of the factors mostly
called upon to justify the unused of certain didactic methods.
• 3.2. The teacher’s personality
• The teacher, like the learner, has his/her own interests which
inevitably have an impact on teacher’s enthusiasm in teaching. In
addition to the teacher’s interest, his/her aptitude to use a
particular teaching method is another significant element.
• Some teachers do not have the skills to use effectively some
methods. Although others have the aptitudes to use these
methods in an efficient way, they do not find any satisfaction in
using them. In either of these cases, the teacher may perform
poorly.
• Finally, if the teacher does not know how to apply the methods this could limit his/her
performance.
3.3 The learning objectives
• Here again, the teacher must know the nature, how to formulate, the importance and the end-
results of the learning objectives.
• The nature of objectives deals with cognitive, socio-affective or psychomotor domains. The
choice of the didactic methods will depend to a great extent on the domain under
consideration.
• The setting of objectives can focus on knowledge, reproduction of a procedure or a
predetermined behavior, developing originally or creativity.
 CONT’

If the teacher wants his/her learners to report a historical fact (objective aiming at
reproducing facts), he/she will be obliged to use a method which is different from
that of essay writing (objective aiming at developing cognitive skills, creativity).
3.4. The subject contents
In theory, all methods are appropriate to teach any discipline. But, the amount of
information to be taught in course can be more or less significant. Finally, an
objective can be reached at various levels, from minimum success to perfect
mastery.
 CONT

• When the subject contents are too big, teachers will try to allocate
appropriate time to some parts of the contents. The content to be covered
is another element which must lead the teacher to the right choice of the
best teaching methods to use.
• Preferably, the contents of a more practical nature will be associated with
the didactic methods which give priority to application and manipulation;
while the contents of a more theoretical nature will be associated with the
didactic methods which require understanding.
 3.5. The environmental constraints

• Pedagogical tools also play a major role in the choice of didactic methods. In his efforts
to achieve the objectives, the teacher must know how to manage his/her time when
he/she uses pedagogic tools.
• The budget allocated to a course or a programme can also limit considerably the choice
of didactic methods. The teacher may not use useful methods because he lacks financial
resources. He/she has to resort to other methods, which require modest budget.
• Lack of equipment (audio-visual, data-processing or other material) may prevent
teachers from using useful teaching methods. Even when there are facilities and
equipment, it is not always easy to benefit from these resources.
 CONT’

• The planning of schedules, the distribution of resources and the use of

material constitute a significant activity which must be done in
collaboration with other education stakeholders.
• Finally, the school environment, the choice of a suitable classroom, the
dimensions of the classroom, the number of learners, the possibility to
modify and arrange furniture, the acoustics, the possibility to black out
windows for projection… are some elements to be taken into
consideration.
 CHAPTER FOUR: INSTRUCTIONAL PLANNING

• Instructional planning is the process by which teachers decide 1) what to teach, 2)

how to teach it, 3) how they will determine whether students have learned and are
satisfied.
4.1. Deciding what to teach:
One of the planning decisions teachers make, the first is determining what to teach.
How what is taught gets determined, how the resultant curriculum is translated into
objectives that students are expected to accomplish, and how instructional plans
such as units of work and lessons are prepared to accomplish those objectives.
•Instructional objectives: regardless whether a course, unit, or lesson is being
planned, instructional objectives must be set. An instructional objective describes
what learners must know and be able to do.
4.2.THE SCHEME OF WORK
SoW is a long-term plan showing how teaching will be
organized. It identifies key components of a SoW,
including identifying student needs, planning objectives and
content for each lesson, allocating time and resources, and
reviewing progress regularly. The main function of a scheme
of work is to help teachers plan and sequence their lessons in
advance. That way, they can make sure that all course content
is taught before the school year ends, and that the National
Curriculum aims are covered. It can simply be defined as “a
sequence of topics broken down into teachable units per
week”.
A scheme of work is a plan of what will be covered in each week or session of the
learning programme or course. Nicholas Twoli (2006) defines a scheme of work as
“a document containing topics from the syllabus broken down into sub-topics which
can be taught in a specified period of time usually a school term.

A scheme of work defines the structure and content of a course. It maps out
clearly how resources (e.g. books, equipment, time) and class activities (e.g. teacher-
talk, group work, practicals, discussions) and assessment strategies (e.g. Tests, quizzes,
Q&A, homework) will be used to ensure that the learning aims and objectives of the
course are met. It will normally include times and dates. The scheme of work is usually
an interpretation of a specification or syllabus indicating the amount of work to be
covered during the term or year and can be used as a guide throughout the course to
monitor progress against the original plan
 4.3.Planning Lessons

• While planning a lesson, consider the following:

1. What do we want our students to know or to be able to do at the
end of today`s lesson?
2. What should they know at the end of lessons on a particular
subject?
3. What should they know at the end of the course?
4. Setting out objectives at the beginning of a course is an
essential step in providing a framework into which individual
lesson will fit.
 4.4.What is a lesson Plan?

• A lesson plan is the instructor’s road map of what students need

to learn and how it will be done effectively during the class time.
Then, you can design appropriate learning activities and develop
strategies to obtain feedback on student learning. Having a
carefully constructed lesson plan for each 3-hour lesson allows
you to enter the classroom with more confidence and maximizes
your chance of having a meaningful learning experience with
your students.
• A successful lesson plan addresses and integrates three key
components:
• Learning Objectives, Learning activities, Assessment to check for
student understanding
 4.5. Steps for preparing the
lesson plan
• Identify the learning objectives. ...
• Plan the specific learning activities. ...
• Plan to assess student understanding. ...
• Plan to sequence the lesson in an engaging and
meaningful manner. ...
• Create a realistic timeline. ...
• Plan for a lesson closure.
 CONT……
We should have a master plan, instead of deciding weekly or day by
day what to teach.
6. We should have a sight of the big picture – the scope of knowledge
that is generally agreed to be important.
7. An instructional objective (behavioural objective) is a statement of
skills or concepts that students are expected to know at the end of
some period of instruction.
• Instructional Objective is stated in such a way as to make clear
how objective will be measured.
Plan to sequence the lesson in an engaging and
meaningful manner Robert Gagne proposed a nine-step
process called the events of instruction, which is useful for
planning the sequence of your lesson. Using Gagne’s 9
events in conjunction with Bloom’s Revised Taxonomy of
Educational Objectives aids in designing engaging and
meaningful instruction(SEE BELLOW)
 4.6.The 4 components of clear
learning objectives
• A learning objective is an objective which is formulated in
such a way that it clearly spells out the expected learning
profits on the part of the learners.
• In other words that which the learners should be able to
do/know at the end of the lesson.
• Objectives must be both observable and measurable to be
effective and it should the four major components such as
audience, behavior, condition and degree.
 CONT…..
• These ABCD components entail:
• 1. Audience:
• Learning objectives should always specify the audience they are
intended to serve. Usually, the audiences are participants in a
given training program.
• 2. Behavior:
• Behaviors are observable actions that are supposed to be
accomplished by the end of a training session or program, and
should be demonstrated during the program.
 CONT……..
• To write a clear learning objective, it is important to carefully
choose the most appropriate word that describes the behavior
displayed by the participants in the program after the training is
done.
• The action verb that forms part of your objective should be able to
fully describe the specific behavior that is expected from a
participant after undergoing a training program. Eg, explain,
identify, analyze, list, code, and present…….
• It is therefore to avoid general verbs such as ‘know’ and
‘understand’ as they may not be measurable.
 CONT…..
• 3. Condition:
• A condition in an objective specifies the conditions under
which given tasks should be performed. These are the actual
conditions a given task should take place.
• The conditions may include time and place. An example of a
condition in an objective is “after this program the learners
should be able to take less than five minutes in successfully
predicting the performance of a given stock,” here the phrase
“less than five minutes” represents the condition.
 CONT……
• 4. Degree/Standard:
• Learning objectives should identify to what standards a given skill
or knowledge must be achieved by the learner.
• It is, therefore, important for you to give the specifics of how a
learner will be able to perform a given task in terms of quality and
quantity after undergoing a given training program.
• For example in the objective, “…the learners should be able to
identify 95% of errors…” the phrase ‘95% of errors’ is the standard.
4.7.DOMAINS OF LEARNING
CONT…..
 Bloom`s Taxonomy

• In his book, Taxonomy of educational objectives, Handbook

I, Cognitive domain, Benjamin BLOOM (1989),
differentiated Three kinds of learning: cognitive, affective
and psychomotor
• Educational objectives in cognitive domain cause learners
to engage in intellectual tasks. Such as to recall, to analyze,
to identify, etc. in this domain, they are six levels of
complexity:
CONT….
 CONT……
1. Knowledge (level one): What do we expect learners to know?
The verbs indicated may, for example, be used in the stem of
assignment questions: record, examine, reproduce, arrange, define,
outline, state, present, describe, identify, show, quote.
• 2. Comprehension (Level tow): This covers learners’ ability to
convey what they understand. Can learners interpret what they
know? Can they extrapolate from what they know? Consider the
use of the following verbs in work to be done by learners: discuss,
clarify, classify, explain, translate, extend, interpret, review, select,
summarise, contrast, estimate.
 CONT……..

3. Application (level three): This covers a learner’s ability to use a

theory or information in a new situation. Can learners see the
relevance of this idea to that situation? Verbs to use may include:
• Teaching, supervising, learning, solve, examine, modify, apply, use,
practice, illustrate, choose, Relate, calculate, classify, and
demonstrate.
4. Analysis (level four): This covers a learner’s ability to break down
material or ideas into constituent parts, showing how they relate to
each other and how they are organised. Can learners analyse, elements
of the subject field? Can they analyse relationships in the field?
 CONT…….

• The following verbs may help you construct learning outcomes in

response to these questions: differentiate, investigate, categorise,
appraise, criticize, debate, compare, contrast, distinguish, solve,
analyse, calculate.
5. Synthesis (level five): This covers the learner’s ability to work with
elements and combine them in a way that constitutes a pattern or
structure that was not there before.
• Can learners produce a unique communication in this field? Can they
develop a plan or a proposed set of operations? Can they derive a set
of abstract relationships?
 CONT……
• The verbs shown below may help you construct learning
outcomes in response to these questions:
• Assemble, organize, compose, propose, construct, design, create,
formulate, integrate, modify, derive, develop.
6. Evaluation (level six): This covers the learner’s ability to
construct an argument, compare, opposing arguments, make
judgements and so on.
• Can learners make judgements based on internal evidence?
• Can they make judgements based on external evidence?
 CONT….
• The following verbs may be useful in constructing learning
outcomes in response to these questions:
• judge, select, evaluate, choose, assess, compare, estimate, rate,
measure, argue, defend, summarise.
 CONT……

• In their book A Taxonomy for Learning, Teaching, and

Assessing: A Revision of Bloom's Taxonomy of
Educational Objectives (2001) ,Anderson, Lorin W., and
David R. Krathwohl identified six levels of Educational
Objectives in Cognitive domain as follows:
CONT……..
 CONT…….

•1.Remember
•Retrieve, recall, or recognize relevant knowledge from long-term memory (e.g.,
recall dates of important events in Rwandan history, remember the components
of a bacterial cell).
• Verbs for this level include: cite, define, describe, identify, label, list, match,
name, outline, quote, recall, report, reproduce, retrieve, show, state, tabulate,
and tell.
•2. Understand
•Demonstrate comprehension through one or more forms of explanation (e.g.,
classify a mental illness, compare ritual practices in two different religions).
 CONT……..
•Verbs for this level include: abstract, arrange, articulate, associate, categorize, clarify,
classify, compare, compute, conclude, contrast, defend, diagram, differentiate, discuss,
distinguish, estimate, exemplify, explain, extend, extrapolate, generalize, give examples
of, illustrate, infer, interpolate, interpret, match, outline, paraphrase, predict, rearrange,
reorder, rephrase, represent, restate, summarize, transform, and translate.
•3. Apply
• Use information or a skill in a new situation (e.g., use Newton's second law to solve a
problem for which it is appropriate; carry out a multivariate statistical analysis using a
data set not previously encountered).
• Verbs for this level include: apply, calculate, carry out, classify, complete, compute,
demonstrate, dramatize, employ, examine, execute, experiment, generalize, illustrate,
implement, infer, interpret, manipulate, modify, operate, organize, outline, predict, solve,
transfer, translate, and use.
 CONT…..
•4. Analyze: Break material into its constituent parts and determine how
the parts relate to one another and/or to an overall structure or purpose
(e.g., analyze the relationship between different flora and fauna in an
ecological setting; analyze the relationship between different characters in
a play; analyze the relationship between different institutions in a society).
• Verbs for this level include: analyze, arrange, break down, categorize,
classify, compare, connect, contrast, deconstruct, detect, diagram,
differentiate, discriminate, distinguish, divide, explain, identify, integrate,
inventory, order, organize, relate, separate, and structure.
 CONT……
•5. Evaluate: Definition: make judgments based on criteria and standards
(e.g., detect inconsistencies or fallacies within a process or product,
determine whether a scientist's conclusions follow from observed data,
judge which of two methods is the way to solve a given problem,
determine the quality of a product based on disciplinary criteria).
• Verbs for this level include: appraise, apprise, argue, assess, compare,
conclude, consider, contrast, convince, criticize, critique, decide,
determine, discriminate, evaluate, grade, judge, justify, measure, rank,
rate, recommend, review, score, select, standardize, support, test, and
validate.
 CONT….

•6. Create : Definitions: put elements together to form a new coherent or

functional whole; reorganize elements into a new pattern or structure
(design a new set for a theater production, write a thesis, develop an
alternative hypothesis based on criteria, invent a product, compose a piece
of music, write a play).
• Verbs for this level include: arrange, assemble, build, collect, combine,
compile, compose, constitute, construct, create, design, develop, devise,
formulate, generate, hypothesize, integrate, invent, make, manage, modify,
organize, perform, plan, prepare, produce, propose, rearrange, reconstruct,
reorganize, revise, rewrite, specify, synthesize, and write.
 CHAPTER FIVE:
MICROTEAHING
• MAIN PARTS OF A LESSON PLAN
• PEDAGOCIAL DOCUMENTS
• QUALITIES OF A GOOD TEACHER
• TYPES OF TEACHING AND LEARNING METHODS
 What make a good lesson?

•# Specific knowledge and skills are acquired.

•# Students work on and complete the tasks.
•# Students engage in deep reflection and produce new insights
(intuition).
•# Students are involved and enjoy the learning activities.
•# There is a low incidence of disruptive behaviour.
•# There is cooperation and harmony between teacher and student
and among students.
• # Teaching methods are considered effective.
 CHAPTER SIX: SOME THINKERS IN
EDUCATION AND MODERN PEDAGOGY

• Group Discusion.
• Group One: Discuss the contribution of John Dewey and his
theory (1960), on development of education and modern
pedagogy.
• Group Two: Discuss the contribution of Malia Montessori and
her model of learning on the development of education and
modern pedagogy?
• Group Three: Discuss the contribution of Jean Piaget and his
theory on development of education and modern pedagogy.
 CONT….
• Group Four: Discuss the contribution of Lev Semenovich
VYGOTSKY and his theory, on development of education
and modern pedagogy.
• Group Five: Discuss the contribution of Jerome BRUNER
(1915- ) and the process of education on development of
education and modern pedagogy.
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 THE END

AUDI ET AUDE