MEMORY

KARTINI ILIAS (Ph.D)

SENIOR LECTURER/CLINICAL
PSYCHOLOGIST
FACULTY OF HEALTH SCIENCES,
UiTM
LECTURE OVERVIEW
◦ The Nature of Memory
◦ Forgetting
◦ Biological Bases of Memory
◦ Memory and the Criminal Justice System
◦ Using Psychology to Improve Our Memory
The Nature of Memory
◦ Memory: an internal record or
representation of some prior event or
experience;
• a constructive process in which we
actively organize and shape information as
it is processed, stored, and retrieved;
4 models of memory
◦ 1. Information Processing Model- Memory is
analogous to a computer-encoding, storage, and
retrieval.
◦ 2. Parallel Distributed Processing Model- contents
of memory are represented as a vast number of
interconnected units distributed throughout a
huge network, all operating in parallel-
simultaneously;
◦ 3. Levels of processing model- Memory depends
on the degree or depth of mental processing
occurring when material is initially encountered.
◦ 4. Traditional Three-Stage Memory Model- Memory
requires three different storage boxes to hold and
process information for various lengths of time.
1. Information Processing Model

◦This model compares human memory to a computer's

processes, with three main stages: encoding, storage, and
retrieval.
◦ Encoding: This is the process of taking in information. It can involve
visual, auditory, or semantic (meaning-based) input. Just like typing
data into a computer, we process sensory information from the
world around us.
◦ Storage: Once information is encoded, it needs to be stored.
Memory storage can be short-term or long-term, depending on how
much attention we pay to the information and whether we actively
review or practice it.
◦ Retrieval: This involves accessing the stored information when
needed. Think of opening a saved document on a computer.
Retrieval can be quick and easy if information is well-rehearsed, but
it might be harder to access if it’s not regularly practiced.
 Application in Daily Life

◦This model is useful in understanding study habits.

◦For example, if you encode information effectively by paying
attention and relate it to what you already know, you’re more
likely to store it well.
◦When you regularly test yourself, you improve your ability to
retrieve information, making it easier to remember in real-life
situations.
 2. Parallel Distributed
Processing (PDP) Model

◦This model proposes that memory involves a vast network of

interconnected units (neurons in the brain) that process
information simultaneously, rather than step-by-step.
◦It’s sometimes referred to as the "connectionist" model.
◦Parallel Processing: Instead of information moving through
one stage at a time, our brains process multiple inputs at
once. For example, when you see a face, you simultaneously
process features like color, shape, and expression.
◦Distributed Representation: Memory is distributed across
various interconnected networks. This means that recalling
one piece of information might trigger related memories
because they’re linked in a network.
 Application in Daily Life

◦The PDP model explains why a certain smell might suddenly

remind you of a childhood memory or why hearing a song can
bring back associated emotions.
◦This model is useful in complex real-world tasks, like
multitasking, where your brain is managing various pieces of
information at once.
 3. Levels of Processing Model

◦This model, proposed by Craik and Lockhart, suggests that

memory retention depends on the depth of processing. The
deeper you process information, the better it is stored and
retained.
◦Shallow Processing: This involves superficial engagement
with information, like just looking at a word's font or counting
syllables. Shallow processing often leads to weaker memory
retention.
◦Deep Processing: This involves making meaningful
connections with the information, such as understanding the
meaning of a word, relating it to other knowledge, or
visualizing it. Deep processing enhances memory retention.
 Application in Daily Life

◦If you’re trying to remember someone’s name, you’ll have a

better chance if you make an association, like thinking, "Jack
loves to travel" if he talked about his latest trip. Processing the
information at a deeper level helps it stick.
 4. Traditional Three-Stage
Memory Model

◦This model divides memory into three stages—sensory

memory (brief impressions), short-term memory (temporary
holding), and long-term memory (lasting storage).
◦ Sensory Memory: This is the briefest stage, where sensory input (e.g.,
sights, sounds, smells) is registered for just a fraction of a second. If you
don’t focus on the sensory information, it quickly fades.
◦ Short-Term Memory (STM): If sensory information is attended to, it
moves into STM, where it can be held for about 20–30 seconds. STM has a
limited capacity (about 7±2 items), so it’s where we process information
we need briefly, like a phone number.
◦ Long-Term Memory (LTM): With rehearsal or meaningful association,
information from STM can move into LTM, where it can be retained for
extended periods. LTM has an essentially unlimited capacity, but recall
depends on how well the information is stored and organized.
Application

◦This model is helpful in organizing study techniques. For

example, repeating information or making it personally
meaningful helps it move from STM to LTM.
◦ In daily life, this model explains why sometimes you quickly
forget information (it stays in sensory memory) or remember
things like your childhood home address (stored in LTM).
Sensory Memory
◦ preserves a brief replica of sensory
information;
◦ It has a large capacity and information
lasts between one-half to 4 seconds.
◦ Selected information is sent to short-term
memory.
Sperling’s experiment with
sensory memory
Short-Term Memory
◦ involves memory for current thoughts;
◦ STM can hold 5-9 items for about 30
seconds before they are forgotten.
◦ The capacity of STM can be increased with
chunking;
◦ Information can be stored longer than 30
seconds through maintenance rehearsal.
◦ STM is also a working
memory & is more
than a passive
temporary holding
area;
◦ Active processing of
information also
occurs in STM as a
• visuospatial
sketchpad,
• phonological rehearsal
loop and
• central executive;
Long-Term Memory:
◦ a relatively permanent memory storage
with an unlimited capacity.
◦ To improve LTM, we can use organization,
elaborative rehearsal, and retrieval
cues (recognition and recall).
Types of Long Term Memories

https://www.verywellmind.com/different-types-of-m
emory-and-their-functions-5194859
 Forgetting
◦ Ebbinghaus found
that forgetting
occurs most
rapidly
immediately after
learning.
◦ Relearning takes
less time.

https://www.verywellmind.com/forgetting-about-
psychology-2795034
5 theories of forgetting
◦ 1. Decay theory: memory
degrades/deteriorates with time.
◦ 2. Interference theory: one memory
competes with another memory;
5 theories of forgetting
◦ 3. Motivated forgetting: people forget
things that are painful, threatening, or
embarrassing;
◦ 4. Encoding failure: information in STM isn’t
encoded in LTM;
◦ 5. Retrieval failure: memories stored in LTM
are momentarily inaccessible.
Overcoming Problems with
Forgetting
◦ 1. Serial position effect: remembering material
at the beginning and end of the list better than
material in the middle;
◦ 2. Source amnesia: forgetting the true source of
a memory;
◦ 3. Sleeper effect: initially discounting
information from an unreliable source, but later
judging it as reliable because the source is
forgotten;
◦ 4. Spacing of practice: distributed practice is
found to be superior to massed practice.
Biological Bases of
Memory
A. There are changes in neurons though long-
term potentiation which happens in at least
2 ways:
• repeated stimulation of a synapse can
strengthen the synapse;
• the ability of a particular neuron to release
its neurotransmitters can be increased or
decreased.
B. There are changes in hormones which
affect various brain structures.
• flashbulb memories: vivid images of
circumstances associated with surprising or
strongly emotional events;
C. Memory tends to be localized and
distributed throughout the brain — not just in
the cortex.
Biological Causes of Memory
Loss: Injury and Disease
◦ Amnesia: loss of
memory as a result
from serious brain
injury or trauma;
• Retrograde amnesia
• Anterograde
amnesia
◦ Alzheimer’s disease: progressive mental
deterioration characterized by severe
memory loss;
Memory and the Criminal
Justice System
◦ 2 areas of memory problems that have
profound legal implications:
• Eyewitness accounts- very persuasive but
can be flawed;
• Repressed memories- debate as to whether
recovered memories are accurate.
Using Psychology to Improve
Our Memory
Strategies for improving memory:
• 1. Pay attention and reduce interference;
• 2. Use rehearsal techniques;
• 3. Improve your organization;
• 4. Counteract the serial position effect;
• 5. Manage your time;
• 6. Use the encoding specificity principle;
• 7. Employ self-monitoring and overlearning;
• 8. Use mnemonic devices;