Measurement & Data

Processing
 Understand scientific
notation
To convert a number into scientific notation;
□ move the decimal point so only 1 non-zero digit
is to the left of the decimal point.
□ if you move the decimal point to the left, the
power of 10 will be positive.
□ if you move the decimal point to the right, the
power of 10 will be negative.
3,600 = 3.6 x 103
0.000 075 2 = 7.52 x 10-5
5,732,873.912 = ?
0.124 04 = ?
 Understand scientific
notation
To convert a number out of scientific
notation;
□ if the power of 10 is positive move the
decimal point to the right the power
number of places
□ if the power of 10 is negative move the
decimal point to the left the power
number of places.

8.1 x 10-5 = 0.000081

1.2 x 108 = 120000000
9.342 780 23 x 104 = ?
3.704 x 10-6 = ?
Measurement & Data Processing
□ Errors or Uncertainties (aka. Random
errors or random uncertainties) are what
cause your final results to be inaccurate
(meaning that your results are higher or
lower than the true value)
□ ”true value” is impossible to get
□ There are 2 types of errors or uncertainties
■ Random uncertainties
■ Systematic errors
 The “true value” will have
infinitely many decimal places

This scale costs $13, but only This jeweler’s scale is To get to 0.0001 g, you
displays to 0.1 g accurate to 0.01 g, but costs have to pay $1900 AND
0.1 micrograms (0.00000001
$30 random air currents can
g) costs a cool $27,500
mess with precision
 Random Uncertainties
□ Makes the measured value either smaller
or larger than the true value. Chance alone
determines if it is smaller or larger.
□ Examples – Reading the scale of any
instrument such as a balance or pH meter
or taking a reading which changes with
time.
□ Not due to mistakes and can not be
avoided.
How to reduce random
uncertainty

□ Random errors can be reduced by

carrying out repeated measurements.
□ If measurements are randomly too high or
too low, the average of more and more
measurements will be closer to the true
value
Systematic Errors
□ Makes the measured value always
smaller or larger than the true value.
A systematic error causes a BIAS in an
experimental measurement in one
direction. ACCURACY (or validity) is
the measurement of systematic error.
Accuracy is a measure of how well an
experiment measures what it is trying
to measure.
Systematic Errors, Cont.
□ Examples – non-zero reading on a
meter (zero error), incorrectly
calibrated scale, reaction time of the
experimenter. Using old reagents that
have degraded over time.
Systemic Error examples
Evaluating Systemic Errors
□ Percent error
□ Percent error = (Exp. – Actual)
▪ (Actual)
 Precision and accuracy

□ Precise – When a series of measurement is

repeated and the values obtained are
close together.
□ If the same student was able to obtain the
same results then the procedure is
REPEATABLE.
Precision and accuracy
□ If the same experiment is carried out
by many students the method or
procedure is REPRODUCIBLE.
□ ACCURATE – Results that are close to
the true value.
Random uncertainty as an uncertainty
range (+/-)
□ Random uncertainties are reported as an
uncertainty range. Ex. A value reported as
5.2 +/- 0.5 cm , means the actual length
is between 4.7 and 5.7 cm.
□ Generally, a reading can be measured by
one half the smallest division (least
count).
□ A least count is the smallest division on
the scale of a apparatus.
EACH MEASUREMENT LOCKS IN
SOME RANDOM ERROR
□Check glassware and instruments for
uncertainty range.
□Stopwatch (no matter how many
digits) has +/- 3s uncertainty (human
reflexes, determining endpoint, etc.)
□ALL RANDOM ERROR MUST BE NOTED
IN ALL LAB REPORTS
Significant Figures

□ The total number of digits in a number that

we care about.
□ Counting is exact. Measurement isn’t!
□ A digit that was measured is significant
□ The last significant digit is the uncertainty
□ Calculations are bound by the least
accurate measurement
□ Addition/subtraction: largest uncertain digit
□ Multiplication/division: fewest # of sig figs
Uncertanities as absolute and
% uncertainties.
□ Estimated uncertainties should be
indicated for all measurements.
■ From the smallest division of a scale.
■ From the last sig fig in a digital
measurement.
■ From data provided by the manufacture.
□ Absolute uncertainty is usually
expressed in the same units as the
reading. Ex. 25.4 +/- 0.1 s
Uncertanties as absolute and %
uncertainties.
□ The mathematical symbol for absolute
uncertainty is δx were x represents the
measurement. Ex. 25.4 +/- .1s where x is
25.4 and δx = .1
□ Absolute uncertainty is often converted to
PERCENT UNCERTAINTY.
■ Ex. 25.4 s +/- 0.4% (0.1 s x100=0.4%)
▪ 25.4 s
□ Uncertainties are recorded in one sig fig.
□ The last sig fig should be same place as
uncertainty.
Uncertainties in Multiple
Measurements - Addition
The true value of 1.00 +/- 0.05 could be
anywhere from 0.95 to 1.05.
The true value of 2.50 +/- 0.10 could be
anywhere from 2.40 to 2.60.
What could the sum be?
Anywhere between sum of the lowest 2 possible
values or the sum of the highest 2 values:
0.95 + 2.40 = 3.35 to 1.05 + 2.60 = 3.60, or
3.50 +/- 0.15
Add the uncertainty in each measurment
Adding uncertainty summary
When adding or subtracting uncertainty
values, add the absolute
uncertainties.
■ Initial temp = 34.50 C (+/-0.05C)
■ Final temp = 45.21 C (+/- 0.05C)
■ 45.21 – 34.50= 10.71 C (+/- 0.05 + 0.05 =
0.1 C), 10.71 +/- 0.1 C
How to determine the
uncertainties in results II
□ 2) When multiplying or dividing, add the
percent uncertainties.
□ Ex. Mass= 9.24 +/- 0.05 g and volume
equals 14.1 cc +/- 0.05 cc.
□ Ex. Perform calculation; D= m/v
□ Ex. 9.24 g/ 14.1 cc = 0.655 g/cc
■ Convert absolute uncertainty to %
■ Add the percents
■ Convert total back to percent uncertainty.
Multiplying and Dividing
Uncertainty
Example: (2.0 +/- 0.1) * (1.0 +/- 0.1)
True value is between 1.9 and 2.1 & 0.9 and 1.1.
True answer thus would be between 1.9*0.9 and
2.1*1.1, or
1.7 and 2.3, or 2.0 +/- 0.3
Note: 0.1 is 5% of 2.0; and 10% of 1.0, and 0.3 is
15% of 2.0
Our new uncertainty is the sum of the percent
errors
 Cont.
□ Ex. Mass=0.05/9.24 X 100 = 0.54%
□ Ex. Volume=0.05/14.1 x 100=0.35%

□ 0.54% + 0.35%=0.89%, = 0.655 g/cc (+/-

0.89%)

□ 0.655 x 0.89/100=0.0058295, density =

0.655 +/- 0.006 g/cc.
 How to Determine the
uncertainties in results
□ 3) When X or ÷ by a whole number, X or ÷
the uncertainty by that number.
□ Ex. (4.95 +/- 0.05) x 10 = 49.5 +/- 0.5

□ 4) Powers: When raising to the nth power,

multiply the % uncertainty by n. When
lowering the nth root, ÷ the percent
uncertainty by n.
11.2.2 Determine the
uncertainties in results
□ Ex. (4.3+/- 0.5 cm)3 =
■ 4.33 +/- (0.5) X 3 =
■ 4.3
■ 79.5 cm3 (+/- 0.349%)
■ 79.5 cm3 +/- 0.3 cm3
Exact numbers and constants
□Exact numbers (fifteen people, ½ b*h,
etc) have zero uncertainty and infinite
sig figs.
□Constants have been experimentally
derived to more significant figures
then we will work with. The
uncertainty is small enough to ignore.
How to interpret graphs

□ Dependent variable (manipulated) – shown

on y-axis.
□ Independent variable (responding) – shown
on the x-axis.
□ Know a linear and hyperbolic graph
(inverse relationship graph or logarithmic)
 Construct graphs from
experimental Data
□ Be able to plot data on proper scale.
□ Use proper units
□ Label each axis
□ Plot the points accurately
□ Draw a straight line, line of best fit or a
curve of best fit.
□ Add title and Key if necessary.
□ Any outliers must be identified.
Draw best-fit lines through data
points on graph
□ THE LINE OF BEST FIT – The best fit
line that averages the square of
distance between the data points.
□ Eyeball it
□ There should be roughly the same
number of data points on one side of
the data line as the other.
□ ANOMALOUS – Data that clearly does
not fit the trend.
Determine the values of
physical quantities from graphs.
□ Be able to determine the gradient and
the intercept.
□ Intercept – Where the line crosses the
y-intercept.
□ Gradient – The gradient of a straight-
line graph is the increase in the y-axis
value divided by the increase in the x-
axis value.
 Determine the values of
physical quantities from graphs.
□ Interpolation – A technique where a graph is
used to determine data points between
taken measurements.
□ Calibration curves, etc
□ Extrapolation – A technique used to find
values outside the range for which
measurements were made.
□ Can be less accurate – there may be other
systemic error outside the range