Chapter-3

Bulk deformation processes

Rolling
Forging
Extrusion
Drawing
Bulk deformation processes

Fig.3.1 Classification of metal forming operations

 Raw material and semi finished products

Ingots: A steel casted product

(i) Blooms: It is the first product obtained from the breakdown of
Ingots. A bloom has a cross-section ranging in size from 150 mm square
to 250 mm square or sometimes 250 × 300 mm rectangle.
(ii) Billet: A billet is the next product rolled from a bloom. Billets vary
from 50 mm square to
125 mm square.
(iii) Slab: Slab is of rectangular cross-section with thickness ranging from
50 to 150 mm and is available in lengths up to 112 metres.
Raw material and semi finished products (cont…)
 Raw material and semi finished products (cont…)

(iv) Plate: A plate is generally 5 mm or thicker and is 1.0 or 1.25 metres

in width and 2.5 metres in length.
(v) Sheet: A sheet is up to 4 mm thick and is available in same width and
length as a plate.
(vi) Flat: Flats are available in various thickness and widths and are long
strips of material of specified cross-section.
(vii) Foil: It is a very thin sheet.
(viii) Bar: Bars are usually of circular cross-section and of several metres
length. They are common stock (raw material) for capstan and turret
lathes.
 Raw material and semi finished products (cont…)

(ix) Wire: A wire is a length (usually in coil form) of a small round

section; the diameter of which specifies the size of the wire.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN HOT AND COLD WORKING

Cold working (cold forming) may be defined as plastic deformation of metals and
alloys at a temperature below the recrystallization temperature of that metal or
alloy.
(Recrystallization temperature:- temperature at which the crystal lattice
structure of the metal becomes reoriented. Consequently, the metal becomes more
workable and ductile.).
 Raw material and semi finished products (cont…)

• Hot working may be explained as plastic deformation of metals

above its recrystallization temperature.

Properly done hot working will leave the metal or alloy in a fine
grained recrystallised structure.
 Rolling

• In this process, metals and alloys are

plastically deformed into semi finished
or finished products by being pressed
between two rolls which are rotating.
• The material is subjected to high
compressive force as it is squeezed
(and pulled along) by the rolls. Fig.3.2 Rolling Process
 Rolling

• This is a process to deal with material in bulk in which the cross-section

of material is reduced and its length increased.

• Rolling is done both hot and cold. In a rolling mill attached to a steel
plant, the starting point is a cast ingot of steel which is broken down
progressively into blooms, billets and slabs.
 Rolling

• The slabs are further hot rolled into plate, sheet, rod, bar,
rails and other structural shapes like angles, channels etc.
• Conversion of steel into such commercially important
sections is usually done in another rolling mill called
merchant mill.
 Rolling

Mechanism of Rolling

(a) Schematic diagram of rolling process (b) Forces during rolling

Fig. 3.3 Rolling process

 Rolling

• Each of the two rolls contact the metal surface along the arc AB,
which is called arc of contact.
• Arc AB divided by the radius of rolls will gives angle of contact (α).
• The rollers pull the material forwards only due to the friction
existing between roll surface and the metal.
• At the moment of the bite, the reaction at the contact point A will
be R acting along radial line O1A and frictional force will be acting
along tangent at A at right angles to O1A.
 Rolling

• The deformation zone to the left of the neutral section is called lagging
zone (the roll surface speed is higher than that of metal being rolled) and

• The deformation zone to the right of the neutral section is termed leading
zone (surface speed is lower than that of metal being rolled).
 Rolling

• If Vr is the velocity of roll surface

V0 the velocity of material at the entrance to the deformation zone
and
V1 the velocity of material at the exit of the rolls, we have
 Rolling

(draught/draft =
difference between initial
to the final thicknesses)
Rolling
 TYPES OF ROLLING MILLS

1. Two high mills:

• It comprises of two heavy rolls placed one over the other. The rolls are
supported in bearings housed in sturdy upright frames (called stands)
which are grouted to the rolling mill floor.

• The vertical gap between the rolls is adjustable.

• The rolls rotate in opposite directions and are driven by powerful

electrical motors.
 Rolling

2. Three high mills:

• It consists of three rolls positioned directly over one another.
• The direction of rotation of the first and second rolls are opposite
as in the case of two high mill.
• The direction of rotation of second and third rolls are again
opposite to each other.
 Rolling

• The advantage of this mill is

 The work material can be fed in one direction between the first and
second roll and the return pass can be provided in between the
second and third rolls.
 TYPES OF ROLLING MILLS

Fig. 3.4 Types of Roll mills

 Rolling

3. Four high mills:

• This mill consists of four horizontal rolls, two of smaller diameter and
two much larger ones.

• The larger rolls are called backup rolls.

• The smaller rolls are the working rolls, but if the backup rolls were not
there, due to deflection of rolls between stands, the rolled material
would be thicker in the centre and thinner at either end.
 Rolling
• Backup rolls keep the working rolls pressed and restrict the deflection, when the
material is being rolled.

• The usual products of these mills are hot and cold rolled plates and sheets.

Fig. Four high mills

 Rolling

4. Cluster mills:
• It consists of two working rolls of small diameter and four or more
backing rolls.

• The large number of backup rolls provided becomes necessary as the

backup rolls cannot exceed the diameter of working rolls by more
than 2–3 times.

• To accommodate processes requiring high rolling loads (e.g., cold

rolling of high strength steels sheets), the size of working rolls
becomes small.
 Rolling

• So does the size of backup rolls and a stage may be reached that
backup rolls themselves may offer deflection.
• So the backup rolls need support or backing up by further rolls.
.

• This mill is used for rolling stainless steel and other high strength
steel sheets of thin gauge.

Fig. Cluster mills

 Rolling

5. Tandem Rolling Mill / Continuous Rolling Mill

• It consists of a number of non reversing two-high rolling mills

arranged one after the other, so that the material can be passed
through all of them in sequence.

• It is suitable for mass production work only, because for smaller

quantities quick changes of set-up will be required and they will
consume lot of time and labour.
 Rolling

Fig. Tandem Rolling Mill / Continuous Rolling Mill

• Modern tandem rolling mills are often supplied directly by

continuous casting operations.
 Rolling

• These setups achieve a high degree of integration among the processes required to
transform starting raw materials into finished products.

• Advantages include elimination of soaking pits, reduction in floor space, and shorter
manufacturing lead times.

• These technical advantages translate into economic benefits for a mill that can
accomplish continuous casting and rolling.
 Rolling

Roll Force
Dmax = µ2R is the maximum allowable draft
The equation indicates that if friction were zero, draft would be zero,
and it would be impossible to accomplish the rolling operation.
so, Dmax should be greater than Draft
The true strain experienced by the work in rolling is based on before and
after stock thicknesses. In equation form,

Yavg =k N=strain hardening

Contact length can be approximated by

Where, R is roll radius

 Rolling

The roll force in flat rolling can be estimated as,

Force F= L w Yavg L = roll strip contact length,
w= width of the strip,
Yavg = average true stress of the strip in the roll gap
Torque in rolling
T=F.R.Sinθ
Assuming that the roll force is centered on the work as it passes between the
rolls, and that it acts with a moment arm of one-half the contact length L and
the force is perpendicular
T=0.5FL

Power required for rolling operation can be estimated as,

where P -power, J/s
Power = J/s N -rotational speed, 1/s (rev/min)
F-rolling force, N and
L-contact length, m.
 Rolling

Example Flat Rolling

A 300-mm-wide strip 25-mm thick is fed through a rolling mill with two powered rolls
each of radius = 250 mm. The work thickness is to be reduced to 22 mm in one pass at
a roll speed of 50 rev/min. The work material has a flow curve defined by K = 275 MPa
and n = 0.15, and the coefficient of friction between the rolls and the work is assumed
to be 0.12. Determine if the friction is sufficient to permit the rolling operation to be
accomplished. If so, calculate the roll force, torque, and horsepower.
FORGING
 FORGING

• Forging is a deformation process in which the work is compressed

between two dies, using either impact or gradual pressure to form
the part.
• It is the oldest of the metal forming operations, dating back to
perhaps 5000 BC.
• Today, forging is an important industrial process used to make a
variety of high strength components for automotive, aerospace, and
other applications.
 Forging

• These components include engine crankshafts and connecting rods, gears, aircraft
structural components, and jet engine turbine parts.

• Forging is carried out in many different ways. One way to classify the
operations is by working temperature.
 Forging

• Most forging operations are performed hot or warm, owing to the

significant deformation demanded by the process and the need to
reduce strength and increase ductility of the work metal.

• However, cold forging is also very common for certain products.

• The advantage of cold forging is the increased strength that results

from strain hardening of the component.
 Forging

• Either impact or gradual pressure is used in forging.

• A forging machine
 That applies an impact load is called a forging hammer
 While one that applies gradual pressure is called a forging press.

• Another difference among forging operations is the degree to which

the flow of the work metal is constrained by the dies.
• By this classification, there are three types of forging operations,
shown in Figure
 Forging

(a) open-die forging, (b) impression-die forging, and (c) flash less forging.
• In open-die forging, the work is compressed between two flat dies, thus allowing
the metal to flow without constraint in a lateral direction relative to the die
surfaces.
 Forging

• In impression-die forging, the die surfaces contain a shape or

impression that is imparted to the work during compression, thus
constraining metal flow to a significant degree.
• In this type of operation, a portion of the work metal flows beyond the
die impression to form flash, as shown in the figure.
• Flash is excess metal that must be trimmed off later.

Fig. impression-die forging

 Forging

• In flash less forging, the work is completely constrained within the die and no excess
flash is produced.

• The volume of the starting workpiece must be controlled very closely so that it
matches the volume of the die cavity.

Fig. flash less forging

 Forging

1. OPEN-DIE FORGING

• The simplest case of open-die forging involves compression of a work-

part of cylindrical cross section between two flat dies, much in the
manner of a compression test

• This forging operation, known as upsetting or upset forging, reduces

the height of the work and increases its diameter.
 Forging

Analysis of Open-Die Forging

• If open-die forging is carried out under ideal conditions of no friction between work
and die surfaces

• Then homogeneous deformation occurs, and the radial flow of the material is
uniform throughout its height, as pictured in Figure.

• Under these ideal conditions, the true strain experienced by the work during the
process can be determined by
 Forging

[ Where, ho =starting height of the work, mm; and h = the height

at some intermediate point in the process, mm (in). At the end of
the compression stroke, h = hf and the true strain reaches its
maximum value.]

FIGURE. Homogeneous deformation of a cylindrical work-part under ideal conditions in

an open-die forging operation: (1) start of process with workpiece at its original length
and diameter, (2) partial compression, and (3) final size.
 Forging
• Estimates of force to perform upsetting can be calculated.
• The force required to continue the compression at any given height h
during the process can be obtained by multiplying the corresponding
cross-sectional area by the flow stress:

F = Yf A

where F= force, (N); A=cross-sectional area of the part,mm2 ; and

Yf=flow stress corresponding to the strain

Area A continuously increases during the operation as height is

reduced.
Flow stress Yf also increases as a result of work hardening, except
when the metal is perfectly plastic (e.g., in hot working).
 Forging

• An actual upsetting operation does not occur quite as shown in Figure

because friction opposes the flow of work-metal at the die surfaces.
This creates the barreling effect shown in Figure.

• When performed on a hot work-part with cold dies, the barreling

effect is even more pronounced.
• This results from a higher coefficient of friction typical in hot working
and heat transfer at and near the die surfaces, which cools the metal
and increases its resistance to deformation.
 Forging

• The hotter metal in the middle of the part flows more readily than the cooler metal
at the ends.
• These effects are more significant as the diameter to-height ratio of the work-part
increases, due to the greater contact area at the work–die interface.

FIGURE. Actual deformation of a cylindrical work-part in open-die forging, showing

pronounced barreling: (1) start of process, (2) partial deformation, and (3) final shape.
 Forging

• All of these factors cause the actual upsetting force to be greater than
what is predicted by Eq. As an approximation, we can apply a shape
factor to Eq. to account for effects of the D/h ratio and friction:

F = Kf Yf A

where F, Yf and A have the same definitions as in the previous

equation; and Kf is the forging shape factor, defined as

where µ = coefficient of friction; D = work-part diameter or other

dimension representing contact length with die surface, mm and h=
work-part height, mm.
 Forging

Example:

A cylindrical work-piece is subjected to a cold upset forging

operation. The starting piece is 75 mm in height and 50 mm in
diameter. It is reduced in the operation to a height of 36mm. The
work-material has a flow curve defined by K= 350MPa and n= 0.17.
Assume a coefficient of friction of 0.1. Determine the force as the
process begins, at intermediate heights of 62mm, 49 mm, and at
the final height of 36 mm.
 Forging

Open-Die Forging Practice Open-die hot forging is an important

industrial process.

• Shapes generated by open-die operations are simple; examples

include shafts, disks, and rings

• An example of open-die forging in the steel industry is the shaping of a

large square cast ingot into a round cross section.
 Forging

• Open-die forging operations produce rough forms, and subsequent operations

are required to refine the parts to final geometry and dimensions.

• An important contribution of open-die hot-forging is that it creates a

favourable grain flow and metallurgical structure in the metal.
 Forging

FIG. Upsetting force as a function of height h and height reduction (ho h). This plot is sometimes called the load
stroke curve.
 Forging

• Operations classified as open-die forging or related operations include

fullering, edging, and cogging, illustrated in Figure.

• Fullering is a forging operation performed to reduce the cross section

and redistribute the metal in a work-part in preparation for
subsequent shape forging. It is accomplished by dies with convex
surfaces.

• Fullering die cavities are often designed into multi-cavity impression

dies, so that the starting bar can be rough formed before final
shaping.
 Forging
• Edging is similar to fullering, except that the dies have concave surfaces.

• A cogging operation consists of a sequence of forging compressions along the

length of a workpiece to reduce cross section and increase length.

• It is used in the steel industry to produce blooms and slabs from cast ingots.

• It is accomplished using open dies with flat or slightly contoured surfaces. The term
incremental forging is sometimes used for this process.
 Forging

FIGURE. Several open-die forging operations: (a) fullering, (b) edging, and (c) cogging.
 Forging

2. IMPRESSION-DIE FORGING

• Impression-die forging, sometimes called closed-die forging, is

performed with dies that contain the inverse of the desired shape of
the part.

• The raw workpiece is shown as a cylindrical part similar to that used

in the previous open-die operation.

• As the die closes to its final position, flash is formed by metal that
flows beyond the die cavity and into the small gap between the die
plates.
 Forging

Fig. Sequence in impression-die forging: (1) just prior to initial contact with raw
workpiece, (2) partial compression, and (3) final die closure, causing flash to form
in gap between die plates.
 Forging

• Although this flash must be cut away from the part in a subsequent
trimming operation. It actually serves an important function during
impression-die forging.

• As the flash begins to form in the die gap, friction resists continued
flow of metal into the gap, thus constraining the bulk of the work
material to remain in the die cavity.

• In hot forging, metal flow is further restricted because the thin flash
cools quickly against the die plates, thereby increasing its resistance
to deformation.
 Forging

The advantages of forging; compared to machining the part completely

• Are higher production rates • Greater strength
• Favourable grain orientation of the
• Conservation of metal metal that results from forging.

FIGURE. Comparison of metal grain flow in a part that is: (a) hot forged
with finish machining, and (b) machined complete.
 Forging
3. FLASHLESS FORGING

• As mentioned above, impression-die forging is sometimes called

closed-die forging in industry terminology.

• However, there is a technical distinction between impression-die

forging and true closed-die forging.

• The distinction is that in closed-die forging, the raw workpiece is

completely contained within the die cavity during compression, and
no flash is formed.
 Forging
• The process sequence is illustrated in Figure. The term flash-less
forging is appropriate to identify this process.

Flashless forging: (1) just before initial contact with workpiece, (2) partial
compression, and (3) final punch and die closure. Symbols v and F indicate
motion (v = velocity) and applied force, respectively.
 Forging

• Forces in flashless forging reach values comparable to those in

impression-die forging.

• Estimates of these forces can be computed using the same methods as

for impression-die forging

• Flashless forging imposes requirements on process control that are more

demanding than impression-die forging.

• Most important is that the work volume must equal the space in the die
cavity within a very close tolerance.
 Forging

• If the starting blank is too large, excessive pressures may cause

damage to the die or press.

• If the blank is too small, the cavity will not be filled.

• Because of the special demands made by flashless forging, the

process lends itself best to part geometries that are usually simple
and symmetrical, and to work materials such as aluminum and
magnesium and their alloys.
 Forging

Flashless forging is often classified as a precision forging process.

• The force formula is the same as previous Eq. for open-die forging,
but its interpretation is slightly different:

F = Kf Yf A

where F= maximum force in the operation, N ; A= projected area of the part

including flash, mm2 ; Yf = flow stress of the material, MPa; and Kf = forging
shape factor.
Forging
 Forging
• Coining is a special application of closed-die forging in which fine details in
the die are impressed into the top and bottom surfaces of the work-part.
• There is little flow of metal in coining, yet the pressures required to
reproduce the surface details in the die cavity are high, as indicated by the
value of Kf in Table.

FIGURE . Coining operation: (1) start of cycle, (2) compression stroke, and (3) ejection of
finished part.
 Forging

FIGURE. Cross sections of (a) conventional- and (b) precision forgings. Dashed
lines in (a) indicate subsequent machining required to make the conventional
forging equivalent in geometry to the precision forging. In both cases, flash
extensions must be trimmed.
 Forging
FORGING HAMMERS, PRESSES, AND DIES

• Equipment used in forging consists of forging machines, classified as

hammers or presses, and forging dies, which are the special tooling
used in these machines.

• In addition, auxiliary equipment is needed, such as

 Furnaces to heat the work
 Mechanical devices to load and unload the work and
 Trimming stations to cut away the flash in impression-die forging.
 Forging

• Forging Hammers operate by applying an impact loading against the work.

 The term drop hammer is often used for these machines, owing to the means of
delivering impact energy .

• Drop hammers are most frequently used for impression-die forging.

 The upper portion of the forging die is attached to the ram, and the lower portion is
attached to the anvil.

• In the operation, the work is placed on the lower die, and the ram is lifted and then
dropped.

• When the upper die strikes the work, the impact energy causes the part to assume
the form of the die cavity.

• Several blows of the hammer are often required to achieve the desired change in
 Forging

FIGURE. Drop forging hammer, fed by conveyor and heating units at the
right of the scene.
 Forging

• Drop hammers can be classified as : gravity drop hammers and power

drop hammers.
• Gravity drop hammers achieve their energy by the falling weight of a heavy
ram.
 The force of the blow is determined by the height of the drop and the
weight of the ram.

• Power drop hammers accelerate the ram by pressurized air or steam.

• One of the disadvantages of drop hammers is that a large amount of the
impact energy is transmitted through the anvil and into the floor of the
building.
 Forging

FIGURE. Diagram showing details of a drop hammer for impression-

die forging.
 Forging

Forging Presses :

• Presses apply gradual pressure, rather than sudden impact, to accomplish

the forging operation.

• Forging presses include mechanical presses, hydraulic presses, and screw

presses.
• Mechanical presses operate by means of eccentrics, cranks, or knuckle
joints, which convert the rotating motion of a drive motor into the
translation motion of the ram.

• Mechanical presses typically achieve very high forces at the bottom of the
forging stroke.
 Forging

• Hydraulic presses use a hydraulically driven piston to actuate the ram.

• Screw presses apply force by a screw mechanism that drives the vertical ram.

• Both screw drive and hydraulic drive operate at relatively low ram speeds and can
provide a constant force throughout the stroke.

• These machines are therefore suitable for forging (and other forming) operations
that require a long stroke.
 Forging

FIGURE (a) Mechanical forging press; (b) screw press.

 Forging

• The primary power sources for large mechanical presses are DC motors.

• Screw presses utilize a friction, gear transmission, electric or hydraulic drive to

accelerate a flywheel–screw subassembly for a vertical stroke
 Forging
Forging Dies

• Proper die design is important in the success of a forging operation.

• Parts to be forged must be designed based on knowledge of the

principles and limitations of this process.

• Design of open dies is generally straight forward because the dies are
relatively simple in shape. This comments apply to impression dies and
closed dies.
 Forging
Some of the terminology in an impression die. We indicate some of the
principles and limitations that must be considered in the part design or
in the selection of forging.

Forging die terminology

1. Parting line: The parting line is the plane that divides the upper die
from the lower die called the flash line in impression-die forging, it is
the plane where the two die halves meet.

 Its selection by the designer affects grain flow in the part, required
load, and flash formation.
 Forging die terminology Forging

2. Draft: Draft is the amount of taper on the sides of the part required
to remove it from the die.

 Typical draft angles are 3 on aluminum and magnesium parts and 5 to

7 on steel parts.

 Draft angles on precision forgings are near zero.

 Forging
3. Webs and ribs: A web is a thin portion of the forging that is parallel to the
parting line, while a rib is a thin portion that is perpendicular to the parting line.

• These part features cause difficulty in metal flow as they become thinner.

4. Fillet and corner radii: Fillet and corner radii are illustrated in Figure. Small
radii tend to limit metal flow and increase stresses on die surfaces during forging.

5. Flash: Flash formation plays a critical role in impression-die forging by causing

pressure build up inside the die to promote filling of the cavity.
 Forging

FIGURE. Terminology for a conventional impression die in forging.

 EXTRUSION

• Extrusion is a compression process in which the work metal is forced to

flow through a die opening to produce a desired cross-sectional shape.

• The process can be likened to squeezing toothpaste out of a toothpaste

tube.
 Extrusion

There are several advantages of the modern process:

1. a variety of shapes are possible, especially with hot extrusion;
2. Grain structure and strength properties are enhanced in cold and warm
extrusion
3. Fairly close tolerances are possible, especially in cold extrusion; and
4. in some extrusion operations, little or no wasted material is created.

TYPES OF EXTRUSION
Direct extrusion and indirect extrusion.

Cold, warm, or hot extrusion.

Continuous process or a discrete process.

 Extrusion

Direct Extrusion (also called as forward extrusion)

• A metal billet is loaded into a container, and a ram compresses the

material, forcing it to flow through one or more openings in a die at the
opposite end of the container.

• As the ram approaches the die, a small portion of the billet remains that
cannot be forced through the die opening.

• This extra portion, called the butt, is separated from the product by
cutting it just beyond the exit of the die.
 Extrusion

FIGURE. Direct extrusion.

 Extrusion

• One of the problems in direct extrusion is the significant friction that

exists between the work surface and the walls of the container as the
billet is forced to slide toward the die opening.

• This friction causes a substantial increase in the ram force required in

direct extrusion.

• In hot extrusion, the friction problem is aggravated by the presence of

an oxide layer on the surface of the billet.

• This oxide layer can cause defects in the extruded product.

 Extrusion

• To address these problems, a dummy block is often used between the ram and the
work billet.
• The diameter of the dummy block is slightly smaller than the billet diameter, so that
a narrow ring of work metal (mostly the oxide layer) is left in the container, leaving
the final product free of oxides.

Hollow sections by direct extrusion

• Hollow sections (e.g., tubes) are possible in direct extrusion by the process setup in
Figure.
• The starting billet is prepared with a hole parallel to its axis.
• This allows passage of a mandrel that is attached to the dummy block.
 Extrusion

• As the billet is compressed, the material is forced to flow through the

clearance between the mandrel and the die opening. The resulting
cross section is tubular.

• The starting billet in direct extrusion is usually round in cross section,

but the final shape is determined by the shape of the die opening.

Obviously, the largest dimension of the die opening must be smaller

than the diameter of the billet.
 Extrusion

FIGURE . (a) Direct extrusion to produce a hollow or semi-hollow cross section; (b)
hollow and (c) semi-hollow cross sections.
 Extrusion

Indirect extrusion (also called backward extrusion and reverse extrusion)

• The die is mounted to the ram rather than at the opposite end of the
container.

• As the ram penetrates into the work, the metal is forced to flow through
the clearance in a direction opposite to the motion of the ram.

• Since the billet is not forced to move relative to the container, there is no
friction at the container walls, and the ram force is therefore lower than
in direct extrusion.
 Extrusion

Limitations of indirect extrusion are imposed by the lower rigidity of the

hollow ram and the difficulty in supporting the extruded product as it exits
the die.

FIGURE. Indirect extrusion to produce (a) a solid cross section and (b) a
hollow cross section.
 Extrusion

Hot versus Cold Extrusion

• Extrusion can be performed either hot or cold, depending on work metal

and amount of strain to which it is subjected during deformation.

• Metals that are typically extruded hot include aluminum, copper,

magnesium, zinc, tin, and their alloys.

• Steel alloys are usually extruded hot, although the softer, more ductile
grades are sometimes cold extruded
 Extrusion

Hot extrusion

• Hot extrusion involves prior heating of the billet to a temperature above its
recrystallization temperature.

• This reduces strength and increases ductility of the metal, permitting more
extreme size reductions and more complex shapes to be achieved in the
process.
• Additional advantages of Hot extrusion include
 reduction of ram force
 increased ram speed and
 reduction of grain flow characteristics in the final product.
 Extrusion

• Cooling of the billet as it contacts the container walls is a problem,

and Isothermal extrusion is sometimes used to overcome this
problem.

• Lubrication is critical in hot extrusion for certain metals (e.g., steels),

and special lubricants have been developed that are effective under
the harsh conditions in hot extrusion.

• Glass is sometimes used as a lubricant in hot extrusion; in addition to

reducing friction, it also provides effective thermal insulation between
the billet and the extrusion container.
 Extrusion

Cold extrusion
• Cold extrusion and warm extrusion are generally used to produce
discrete parts, often in finished (or near finished) form.

• The term impact extrusion is used to indicate high-speed cold extrusion.

• Some important advantages of cold extrusion include;
 Increased strength due to strain hardening
 Close tolerances
 Improved surface finish
 Absence of oxide layers and
 High production rates.
 Extrusion

• Cold extrusion at room temperature also eliminates the need for heating the
starting billet.

Continuous versus Discrete Processing

• A true continuous process operates in steady state mode for an indefinite period of
time.
• Some extrusion operations approach this ideal
 Extrusion

• As we discussed in the previse slide one of the problems in direct extrusion is

friction along the billet– container interface.

• This problem can be addressed by surrounding the billet with fluid inside the
container and pressurizing the fluid by the forward motion of the ram, as in
Figure.

• This way, there is no friction inside the container, and friction at the die opening is
reduced.

• Consequently, ram force is significantly lower than in direct extrusion.

• The fluid pressure acting on all surfaces of the billet gives the process its name.

• It can be carried out at room temperature or at elevated temperatures.

• Special fluids and procedures must be used at elevated temperatures.

 Extrusion

• Hydrostatic Extrusion
 WIRE AND BAR DRAWING

• In the context of bulk deformation, drawing is an operation in which

the cross section of a bar, rod, or wire is reduced by pulling it
through a die opening.

• The general features of the process are similar to those of extrusion.

• The difference is that the work is pulled through the die in drawing,
whereas it is pushed through the die in extrusion.
 Wire and Bar Drawing

• Although the presence of tensile stresses is obvious in drawing, compression

also plays a significant role because the metal is squeezed down as it passes
through the die opening.

• Bar drawing is generally accomplished as a single-draft operation—the stock is

pulled through one die opening.

• Because the beginning stock has a large diameter, it is in the form of a straight
cylindrical piece rather than coiled.
 Wire and Bar Drawing

• By contrast, wire is drawn from coils consisting of several hundred (or

even several thousand) feet of wire and is passed through a series of
draw dies.
 Wire and Bar Drawing

• The number of dies varies typically between 4 and 12.

• The term continuous drawing is used to describe this type of operation because of
the long production runs that are achieved with the wire coils, which can be butt-
welded

• In a drawing operation, the change in size of the work is usually given by the area
reduction, defined as follows:
 Wire and Bar Drawing

where r= area reduction in

drawing; Ao=original area of
work,mm2; and Af= final area,
mm2. Area reduction is often
expressed as a percentage.

• The draft is simply the difference between original and final stock
diameters.

where d = draft, mm; Do = original diameter of work, mm; and Df =

final work diameter, mm
 Wire and Bar Drawing

Drawing practice
• Drawing is usually performed as a cold working operation.
• It is most frequently used to produce round cross sections, but
squares and other shapes are also drawn.

• Wire drawing is an important industrial process, providing commercial

products such as;
 Electrical wire and cable
 wire stock for fences and
 Rod stock to produce nails, screws, rivets, springs, etc.
 Wire and Bar Drawing

Drawing Equipment

• Bar drawing is accomplished on a machine called

 a draw bench consisting of an entry table
 die stand (which contains the draw die)
 carriage and
 Exit rack.
 Wire and Bar Drawing

Figure. Hydraulically operated draw bench for drawing metal bars.

 Wire and Bar Drawing

• Wire drawing is done on continuous drawing machines that consist of

multiple draw dies, separated by accumulating drums between the
dies,

FIGURE. Continuous drawing of wire.

 Wire and Bar Drawing

Draw Dies

• Features of a typical draw die. Four regions of the die can be

distinguished:
1. Entry
2. Approach angle
3. Bearing surface (land) and
4. Back relief.
• The entry region is usually a bell-shaped mouth that does not contact
the work.
• Its purpose is to funnel the lubricant into the die and prevent scoring of
work and di surfaces.
 Wire and Bar Drawing

Fig. Draw dies are made of tool steels or cemented carbides

 Wire and Bar Drawing

TUBE DRAWING
• Drawing can be used to reduce the diameter or wall thickness
of seamless tubes and pipes, after the initial tubing has been
produced by some other process such as extrusion.
• Tube drawing can be carried out either with or without a
mandrel.
• The simplest method uses no mandrel and is used for diameter
reduction.
 Wire and Bar Drawing

FIGURE. Tube drawing with no mandrel (tube sinking)

• The problem with tube drawing in which no mandrel is used, as in the Figure, is
that it lacks control over the inside diameter and wall thickness of the tube.

• This is why mandrels of various types are used, two of which are illustrated in
the Figure bellow.
 Wire and Bar Drawing

FIGURE. Tube drawing with mandrels: (a) fixed mandrel, (b) floating plug.

• Practical limitations on the length of the support bar in this method

restrict the length of the tube that can be drawn.
 Wire and Bar Drawing

• The second type, shown in (b), uses a floating plug whose shape is designed so that
it finds a ‘‘natural’’ position in the reduction zone of the die.

• This method removes the limitations on work length present with the fixed mandrel.
 Wire and Bar Drawing

ANALYSIS OF DRAWING
• Mechanics of Drawing If no friction or redundant work occurred in
drawing, true strain could be determined as follows:

where Ao and Af are the

original and final cross-
sectional areas of the work,
as previously defined; and r =
drawing reduction.
 Wire and Bar Drawing

• The stress that results from this ideal deformation is given by

where average flow stress based on the value of strain

K= metal has a strength coefficient and n= strain-hardening exponent

• Because friction is present in drawing and the work metal experiences

inhomogeneous deformation, the actual stress is larger than provided.

• In addition to the ratio Ao/Af other variables that influence draw stress
are die angle and coefficient of friction at the work–die interface.
 Wire and Bar Drawing

• The equation suggested by Schey

where sd = draw stress, MPa; µ = die-work coefficient of friction; α = die

angle (half-angle) ; and φ is a factor that accounts for inhomogeneous
deformation which is determined as follows for a round cross section.

Where D = average diameter of work during

drawing, mm; and Lc = contact length of the
work with the draw die. Values of D and Lc can
be determined from the following:
 Wire and Bar Drawing

The corresponding draw force is then the area of the drawn cross
section multiplied by the draw stress:

where F = draw force, N; and the other terms are defined above. The
power required in a drawing operation is the draw force multiplied by
exit velocity of the work.
 Wire and Bar Drawing

Example Problem
Wire is drawn through a draw die with entrance angle=15° Starting
diameter is 2.5 mm and final diameter=2.0 mm. The coefficient of
friction at the work–die interface=0.07. The metal has a strength
coefficient K=205 MPa and a strain-hardening exponent=0.20.
Determine the draw stress and draw force in this operation.
THE END