CHAPTER 6:

ELEMENTS OF POWER SYSTEM

PREPARED BY:
DR. ZULKIFFLI BIN ABDUL HAMID
 PART 1
BASIC COMPONENTS
Introduction
 Electrical power system:
 A network of components designed to transmit and distribute
the energy produced by generators to locations where it is
used.
 Required to generate and supply electrical energy to
consumers.

 The three main characteristics of electricity supply are as follows:

 Electricity cannot be stored in bulk form. Thus, power must be
generated continuously so that it meets the demand at a
specific voltage and frequency.
 Increases in population, industrial expansion, housing areas
and etc lead to the continuous increase in demand for power.
 Power station is located near to the resources location.
Introduction
 The power system today is a complex interconnected network.

 The basic components of a power system are:

 Generation
 Transmission and subtransmission
 Distribution
 Loads
Introduction
Generator Load
bus Transformer bus

Generator
Load

Generation Transmissi Distributio

on n

Power system
representation
 100 kV to 500 10 kV to 20
kV kV

10 kV to 30
kV 240 V and
415 V
Generation
 Generation is the first part of power system and is responsible for
generating electricity through synchronous generators.

 The synchronous generators are the essential components of

generation and it is located in power plant.

 Synchronous generator is driven by prime mover (such as steam

turbine, gas turbine, hydraulic turbine, nuclear fuel, diesel
engine).

 Generation is modeled by an AC voltage source in power system.

 Standard generated voltage (TNB) by a power plant is between 10

kV to 25 kV.
Generation
Powers supplied by all power stations are based on power
demand, which is predicted based on previous demand.

Daily load curve for 24 hours

Method of electricity generation
Other Process
(turbine & Electrical
energie energy
s generator)

Method of Power plant Source of energy

generation
Thermal energy Thermal power Coal, oil, gas
plant
Kinetic energy Hydroeletric power Water, wind
plant, wind power
plant
Nuclear energy Nuclear power Radioactive
plant materials
Solar energy Solar power plant Radiation of
sunlight
Wave energy Wave and tidal Sea wave
power plant
 Renewable
energy

Main sources of energy

for
electricity generation

Coal Oil Nuclear

Gases Water
Energy Advantages Disadvantages
source
Coal Most common source The most polluting (CO2)
Relatively cheap fuel Need antipollution features
Non-renewable
Oil A bit more polluting than However, much more expensive
natural gas but easy to (price always fluctuates)
transport over long Non-renewable
distance

Natural gas Better and cleaner Hard to transport over long

energy source than coal distance
Non-renewable
Water The best source Modify & damage ecosystem
Non-polluting
No cost for the ‘fuel’

Nuclear energy Non-polluting Extremely expensive to build

Once built, the cost of Require elaborate safety system
the ‘fuel’ is low and expensive training

Renewable Clean and zero ‘fuel’ cost High set-up cost

energy Generated output is not very high
Power Plant

Thermal power station (Coal based)

Power Plant

Wind power station

Power Plant

Hydro power station

Roles of power stations
 Power stations can be categorized based on their role in power
system. There 3 categories:
 Base power station
 Intermediate power station
 Peak power station
Roles of power stations
 Base power station:
 Base load is the minimum amount of power that a utility
company must make available to its customers.
 Deliver full power continuously i.e. 24 hours a day and 365
days a year.
 Most economical in terms of operating costs i.e. high efficiency
output & most reliable.
 Nuclear & coal-fired stations are suitable for this purpose.

 Intermediate power station:

 Can respond to changes in demand relatively quickly, usually
by adding or removing one or more generating units.
 Operate mainly during day time to complement the base
stations.
 The most economical in terms of production costs, although
unreliable in terms of actual energy output.
 Hydropower stations are suitable for this purpose.
Roles of power stations
 Peak power station:
 Generally run only when there is a high demand, known as
peak demand
 Deliver power for short intervals during the day.
 Able to respond very quickly because they can be started up in
a few minutes.
 Have high operating cost due to their idling-time and
unutilized capital costs but necessary for optimal operation of
power system.
 Usually gas turbines are used for this purpose.
Transmission
 Transmission is the intermediate part of power system and is
responsible for transporting the generated power from power plant
to substation or from generation to distribution.

 High voltage power lines and towers are the essential components
of transmission.

 Transmission is modeled by an impedance between two buses in

power system.

 Between the transmission regions, there are many substations for

stepping down the voltage from high to low level.

 The standard voltage level (TNB) for transmission are 132 kV, 275
kV and 500 kV.
Transmission
 Two types of transmission lines:
 overhead lines
 underground cables

Overhead Underground cable

line
Overhead transmission line
 Consist of three conductors suspended by towers or poles.

 Generally the lowest-cost method (since most of the insulation is

provided by air)

 Classified according to the range of voltages:

 Low voltage: less than 1 kV (distribution system)
 Medium voltage: between 1 kV to ~ 33 kV (distribution
system)
 High voltage: between 33 kV to ~230 kV (for long distance
transmission)
 Extra high voltage: over 230 kV ~ 800 kV (for long distance
transmission)
 Ultra high voltage: higher than 800 kV (long distance
transmission)
Underground cables
 These lines are designed to be buried underground or under
water

 Compared to overhead lines, buried cables are:

 More expensive (cost of burying cables is higher)
 Harder to maintain and repair
 Cannot be used for very long distances due to capacitance
problems

 Nevertheless, they are increasingly popular in new urban areas

where overhead transmission lines are considered to be
unsuitable.
Substations
 In transmission system, there are many substations for
transforming from high to low voltage level (step down)
according to consumer requirement.

 Inside the substation there are:

 Transformer (heart of substation)
 Switchgear (on-off switching of the supply)
 Bus-bar (copper made node)
 Control panels (for control purpose)

 In power system, a substation is represented by transformer :

Substations
 TNB’s substation:
 Main Intake Substation (PMU) – step up voltage to
transmission level (132 kV, 275 kV, 500 kV) from generation
level.
 Distribution Substation (PPU) – step down voltage from
transmission level to distribution level (from 33 kV to 11 kV).
 Residential Substation – step down from distribution level to
residential level (from 11 kV to 415 V).
 Interconnecting substation – connect between different power
systems (e.g. HVDC connect Malaysia and Thailand).
Substations

PMU PPU
Distribution
 Distribution is the last part of power system and is responsible for
delivering or distributing the electricity from substation to the
consumers (load).

 Distribution substation and low voltage feeders are the essential

components of distribution.

 In power system, distribution system can be radial or ring

network.

 The standard voltage level (TNB) for distribution are 240 V, 415 V,
11 kV and 33 kV.
Loads
 Load is the end-component of power system and it receives the
electricity from distribution system.

 They are the consumers of power system.

 Load is modeled by an arrow in power system (to indicate the

consumption of electricity).

 There are three four categories of loads:

 Industrial load
 Commercial load
 Critical load
 Residential load
Loads
Type of Required voltage Example
consumers

Heavy industrial 100 kV to 300 kV Oil and gas

loads platform,
automotive
manufacturer
Medium industrial 10 kV to 30 kV Electronic
loads & commercial manufacturer,
buildings shopping mall,
university
Critical loads 10 kV to 30 kV Hospital, military
defense system

Residential loads 240 V to 415 V Single storey up to

three storey
building
Transmission grid
 Grid system is an overall network that consists of many
interconnected power system.

 The advantages of grid systems are:

 Stability in operation – has sufficient reserved power (reactive
power)
 Service continuity – can still supply electricity when
breakdown happens.
 Economy – generators can be scheduled to operate based on
demand level.

 In Peninsular Malaysia, the power grid is known as the National

Grid.

 It is operated and owned by Tenaga Nasional Berhad (TNB).

TNB
grid
Transmission grid
 IPPs are privately owned power producers. They generate and sell
power to TNB.

 Examples of IPPs:
 YTL Generation Sdn Bhd - Paka, Pasir Gudang
 Malakoff Berhad - Lumut Power Station, Segari, Prai Power
Station, Butterworth, Tanjung Bin Power Station, Johor
 Genting Sanyen Power Sdn Bhd - Kuala Langat Power
Station

 There are also two other electrical grids in East Malaysia:

 In Sabah: Sabah Electricity Sdn. Bhd. (SESB)
 In Sarawak: Sarawak Electricity Supply Corporation (SESCO)
Power system representation
 The essential components of power system are:

 Generator – it is a synchronous generator and represented by a

voltage source

 Synchronous condenser – it is a synchronous generator which acts

as a capacitor for reactive power supply.

 Transmission line – and modeled by an impedance connected

between two buses.

 Bus – it is like a node or terminal in electric circuit.

 Transformer – it is represented by two crossed circles or parallel

winding.

 Load – it is the consumer of power system and represented by an

arrow connected on a bus.
Power system representation
Load
Generator

Transformer
M Motor

Transmission
line
Power system representation
Generator Load
bus bus

Generator
Transformer
Load

Generation Transmissi Distributio

on n
 30-Bus transmission power system
Synchronou
s generator

Transmissio
n line

Synchronou
s condenser

Load
13-Bus radial distribution network
Substation
transforme
r
Substation
transforme
r
 PART 2
SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR
Introduction
 One of the essential components in a power system. Also known
as alternator.

 Designed to operate at synchronous speed, ns. Hence, the name.

 A typical generator consists of 2 parts (separated by a small air

gap):
 An outside stationary stator
 An inside rotating rotor
Introduction
Introduction
IAR R
IAY Y
3-phase
IAB B load
N
IF

VF
IN

Synchronous
generator
connected to its
load
Winding types
 It has 2 types of windings:

 Field winding (rotor winding):

 Creates magnetic field
 Placed on the rotor

 Armature winding (stator winding):

 Voltage is induced on it
 Placed on the stator
 Always connected in Y-connection
Rotor types
 There are 2 types of rotor:

 Salient pole:
 Driven by low-speed hydraulic turbine
 Require large no of poles
 Posses large diameter to provide space for the poles

 Cylindrical (non-salient/round):
 Driven by high-speed steam turbine
 No of poles cannot be less than 2
 Smaller compared to salient pole
Stator and its winding
R
Y
B
Stator
winding N
(armature
winding)
 Salient pole rotor
Rotor
winding Slip rings
Shaft

Rotor
Slip ring Rotor Winding
core (field
Shaft Rotor core winding)

Brush _
+ VF
+
_ VF
Cylindrical rotor
Rotor Slip rings Shaft
winding
Rotor Brush
Slip ring core

Shaft Rotor
Winding
Rotor (field
Brush slot + _ winding)
VF
+
_ VF
Operation
 Principle of Operation:

 A dc current is applied to the rotor winding to produce magnetic field.

 Rotor is turned by a prime mover, producing a rotating magnetic field
within the air gap.
 The rotating magnetic field induces 3Ф voltages within the stator
winding
 The rotating magnetic field & the rotor rotate at the same speed
called synchronous speed, ns and given by:
120 f
ns  (in rpm)
P

f = Freq of induced voltage (Hz)

P = No of poles
Operation
N

EGR Y
EG EBG
BR

3-phase load
N BR
I AR I AY I BA
S S

N S
BR

BS S
VF  I F  B R   app  E G  I A
N
Equivalent circuit
IF

jXS RA IA
RF
VF +
+
EG Vϕ
LF _
_

Rotor Stator

VF  I F RF
V  EG  ( R A  jX S ) I A
Equivalent circuit

EG

Xs is 10 to 100 times greater than Ra, and Ra is normally

negligible (Ra=0)
Equivalent circuit Synchronous generator 3-phase load

IL IL

RA IDB IDR
I AR
jXS Vϕ
+ ZΔ
ZΔ
EAR VT VD
_
EAB N
_

EAY
_
+

I AB I AY
+

jXS jXS
ZΔ
RA RA IDY

Stator
Rotor

RF LF
IF

VF
Powers and power factor
 Input power supplied to generator:

Pin  app s
 The real, reactive and apparent output power delivered by
generator is:

P3 3 V I A pf  3 VT I L pf  out  s

Q3 3 V I A sin   3 VT I L sin 

S 3 3V I a* 3 V I A   3 VT I L 

 Power factor of generator is:

pf = cos θ
Powers and power factor
VT terminal voltage / line  to  line voltage
I L line current
pf power factor of generator
 angle of power factor (negative of angle I a )
 app applied torque by prime over / input torque
 out output torque delivered by generator
Maximum power transfer
 From the complex output power supplied by generator:

S 3 3V I a*

 From equation of EG, the phase current Ia is:

V  EG  ( R A  jX S ) I A

V 0  EG   ( Z S  ) I A

EG   V 0
IA 
Z S 
Maximum power transfer

So, the real and reactive output power supplied by

generator are:

Output powers
considering RA
Maximum power transfer

3 V EG
P3  sin 
XS
Output powers
3 V
Q3 
XS
E G cos   V  ignoring RA

Where δ is power
angle
Maximum power transfer

3 V EG Maximum output
Pmax(3 )  power
XS

Value Pmax is called as the steady-state stability limit or static

stability limit (i.e. the maximum power before the machine loses
synchronism)
Phasor diagrams
EG EG
IA jXS
δ IA jXS γ or δ
γ θ Vϕ
IA IA RA IA Vϕ IA RA

Lagging Unity PF
PF

IA jXS
EG
IA
θ
γ δ IA RA Leading
PF
Vϕ
Voltage regulation
 It is defined as the percentage change in terminal voltage from no
load to full load.

 The voltage regulation for synchronous generator is given by

EG  V
VR  100%
V
Infinite bus
 Synchronous generators are rarely used to supply individual
loads.

 Most are connected to large interconnected power networks.

 At the point of connection, system voltage is constant in

magnitude, phase angle & frequency. Such a point in a power
system is referred to as infinite bus.

 The infinite bus or grid can also be defined as a power system so

large that its voltage & frequency do not vary regardless of how
much real & reactive power is drawn or supplied to it.

 It can be applied when the power grid is sufficiently large that the
action of any one user or generator will not affect the operation of
the power grid.
Infinite bus
 In an infinite bus:
 System frequency is constant, independent of power flow.
 System voltage is constant, independent of reactive power
consumed or supplied.

 An infinite bus assumed in many small electrical applications.

 As an example:

We take for granted that the voltage supply to a residential outlet

will be 240V and 50Hz, but the voltage and frequency are not
changed when you turn the TV on.
Infinite bus
 In a power plant, the synchronous generators are connected to or
disconnected from the infinite bus, depending on the power
demand on the grid system.

 The operation of connecting a synchronous generator to the

infinite bus is known as paralleling with the infinite bus.

 Before the alternator (i.e. synchronous generator) can be

connected to the infinite bus, however, the incoming alternator
and the infinite bus must have the same:
 1. Voltage
 2. Frequency
 3. Phase sequence
 4. Phase
[Answer: a) 23.558 kV, 17.1° (b) 807.485 A, -53.43° , 0.596 lagging (c)
136 MW, 3248.85 A, 36.32°
Example 2

Answer: (a) 12.806 kV, 14.47◦ (b) 80.4 MW (c) 3344

A, 36.73◦
 PART 3
TRANSFORMERS
Introduction
 Transformer is another essential component in a power system.

 It converts AC voltage from one level to another through the

action of magnetic field.
 Convert higher voltage to lower voltage: step-down
transformer
 Convert lower voltage to higher voltage: step-up transformer

 Enable transmission of electrical energy over great distances

(step-up to high voltage so that power is transmitted at low
current, so low losses).
Equivalent circuit – ideal
 Ideal transformer has no losses.

Ideal
transforme
r

 For an ideal transformer, the voltage & current relationship is

given by:
Equivalent circuit - practical
 For a practical transformer, there are losses (i.e. flux leakage,
core & copper losses). Taking into account all the losses, the
equivalent circuit is given as below:

Per phase equivalent circuit of a practical

transformer
Equivalent circuit - approximate
 The equivalent circuit can be simplified by referring to either
primary or secondary side.

 Per phase equivalent circuit referred to the primary side

(approximate):
Equivalent circuit - approximate
 Where:

V1 V2'  I 2' ( R1  jX 1  R2'  jX 2' )

Equivalent circuit - approximate
 Per phase equivalent circuit referred to the secondary side
(approximate)
Equivalent circuit - approximate
 Where:

V1' V2  I 2 ( R1'  jX 1'  R2  jX 2 )

Efficiency & voltage regulation
 The efficiency is given by:

Ploss  PCu  Pcore

 Voltage regulation is given by:

'
Pout V2 I 2 . pf
V1  V 2
VR  100% Referred
' to primary PCu  I 2 RT
V 2
V2
V1'  V2 Pcore 
Referred RC
VR  100% to
V2
secondary
Example 1

(d) Determine its efficiency for the condition in (b)

Answer: (a) Zseries = 0.4 + j0.9 (b) 2453.933 V, 0.7◦, 2.25% (c) 2387.004
Autotransformers
A special purpose transformer or simply called the
autotransformer is used when a voltage level need to be changed
by only a small amount; for instance, from 110 V to 120 V or
from 13.2 kV to 13.8 kV.

 This small rise in voltage magnitude is necessary for

compensating voltage drop in power system.

 It is expensive and wasteful to construct a conventional

transformer for such small voltage change. Hence, the
autotransformer is needed.

 An autotransformer is constructed from a conventional

transformer by modifying the connection of primary and
secondary winding.
Autotransformers
 A conventional two-winding transformer can be changed into an
autotransformer by connecting the primary and secondary
windings in series.

 This type of transformer is called as autotransformer.

a) Two-winding transformer b) reconnected as an

autotransformer
Step-up Autotransformer
I1 I2
+

+ + V2 I2
V1 N1 N2 V2 _

_ _ +
V1 I1
S 2 w _
I1 
V1

S 2 w I L  I1  I 2 , I H  I 2
I2 
V2
VL V1 , VH V1  V2
Step-down Autotransformer
I1 I2
+
+ +
V1 I1
V1 N1 N2 V2
_
_ _
+
V2 I2
S 2 w
I1  _
V1

S 2 w
I2 
V2 I L  I1  I 2 , I H  I1
VL V2 , VH V1  V2
Power & efficiency of Autotransformer
 The kVA rating of autotransformer is:

S auto VL I L VH I H

 The output power is:

Pout S auto pf

 Efficiency:

Pout
 100%
Pout  Ploss

 Note: losses of two-winding transformer and autotransformer are

the same.
Autotransformers
 Performance of autotransformer is measured in terms of power
rating advantage (PRA), which is defined as the ratio of apparent
power rating of autotransformer (Sauto) to two-winding
transformer (S2-w).

 This is given below:

S auto N 1
PRA  1  2 1 
S 2 w N1 a
Autotransformers
 When a two-winding transformer is connected as an
autotransformer, it has smaller impedance compared to the two-
winding connection.

 It is common practice to consider an autotransformer as a two-

winding transformer with its two winding connected in series,
where the impedance is referred to the N1-turn side (primary
side).

Autotransformer equivalent circuit with its

impedance
Example 2

Answer: (a) 360 kVA (b) 99.31%

Three-phase transformer
 The previous analysis considers single phase transformer. In
practice, transformers are connected in three-phase form.
Three-phase transformer
 In three-phase form, the primary and secondary sides can have
either same or different connection (Y or Δ).

Y-Y connection

Y-Δ
connection
Three-phase transformer

Δ-Y
connection

Δ-Δ
connection
Three Winding Transformers
 Three-winding transformers are used for:
 Supplying two independent loads at different voltages from the
same source
 Interconnection of two transmission systems of different
voltages

 These windings are called as primary, secondary and tertiary

windings.

 The tertiary winding is:

 Usually used to provide voltage for auxiliary (additional) power
purpose in a substation or to supply a local distribution system
 Also connected to the switched capacitor or reactor for the
purpose of reactive power compensation
Three Winding Transformers
 Equivalent circuit of three-winding transformer is given as:

Equivalent circuit of three-winding

transformer
Three Winding Transformers
By solving (1), (2) and (3), the
impedances of the three
windings referred to primary
side are:
Voltage Control of Transformers
 Voltage control in transformers is required to:
 Compensate for varying voltage drops in the system
 Control reactive power flow over transmission lines
 Control phase angle and therefore, real power flow.

 Two methods commonly used:

 tap-changing transformer
 regulating transformers (boosters)
Tap Changing Transformer
 Used to control voltage magnitudes at all levels by changing its
tap setting. Tap setting is used to change the transformer’s turn
ratio, a.

 2 types:

Off-load tap changing transformers (OLTC):

 Requires disconnection when changing the tap setting
 The changes are not frequent (normally due to load growth and
seasonal change)

Tap-changing under load (TCUL) transformers:

 Can change taps when power is connected
 The changes are frequent, depends on system condition
Tap Changing Transformer
 Consider diagram below with a step-up transformer at sending
end and a step-down transformer at receiving end of a
transmission line, where tS and tR are the tap setting in per-unit.
V1’ and V2’ are the supply and load phase voltages referred to high
voltage side respectively.

A radial line with tap changing transformers at

both ends
Tap Changing Transformer
 If VS and VR are the phase voltages at both ends of the line, then:

 The phasor diagram for the above equation is shown below:

Voltage phasor diagram

Tap Changing Transformer
Tap Changing Transformer
Tap Changing Transformer
Tap Changing Transformer
Tap Changing Transformer
Tap Changing Transformer
 So, the tap setting at sending end bus is:

V2'
V1'
ts 
RP  XQ
1
V1' V2'

 Note: P and Q in the above equation is for single phase power. V1’
and V2’ are the phase voltages.
 23
kV

Answer: tS = 1.08 pu, tR = 0.926 pu

Regulating Transformer (Booster)
 Used to change voltage magnitude & phase angle, at a certain
point in the system by a small amount.

 Consists of an exciting transformer and a series transformer

 The advantages of regulating transformers are:

 The main transformers are free from tapings
 It can be used at any intermediate point.
 It can be taken out for maintenance without affecting the
system.

 Two types of booster:

 Voltage magnitude control
 Phase angle control
Booster - Voltage Magnitude Control
 The connection for phase a is given below

 Other phases have identical arrangement.

Per-phase regulating transformer for voltage

magnitude control
Booster - Voltage Magnitude Control
 The secondary of the exciting transformer is tapped and the voltage
obtained from it is applied to the primary of the series transformer.

 The corresponding voltage, ΔVan on the secondary of the series

transformer is added to the input voltage, Van.

 Thus, output voltage is:

 The output voltage magnitude can be adjusted by changing the exciting

transformer’s tap.

 By changing the switch from position 1 to 2, the polarity of the voltage

across the series transformer is reversed, so that the output voltage
magnitude can be controlled either to be increased or decreased.
Booster - Phase Angle Control
 A typical arrangement for phase a is shown below

 If the injected voltage, ΔVbc is out of phase with the input voltage,
Van then the resultant voltage, Van’ will have a phase shift with
respect to the input voltage.

Per-phase regulating transformer for phase angle

control
Booster - Phase Angle Control
 The series transformer of phase a is supplied from the secondary
winding of the exciting transformer, which is connected to phase b
and c.

 The injected voltage ΔVbc is in quadrature with the voltage Van,

thus the resultant voltage V’an goes through a phase shift α as
shown below

Phasor diagram
for phase angle
control
Phase Angle Control
 The output voltage is

 The amount of phase shift can be adjusted by changing the

exciting transformer’s tap.

 By changing the switch from 1 to 2, the output voltage can be

made to lag or lead the input voltage.