Chapter ONE

introduction

COMPUTER ORGANIZATION AND ARCHITECTURE

By ahmed s.
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 Digital Computers
• DIGITAL COMPUTER:
– It is a digital system that performs various computational tasks.
– It use the binary number system, which has two digits: 0 and 1.
– Information is represented in digital computers in groups of bits.
– A group of bits can be made to represent not only binary
numbers but also other discrete symbols, such as:
• Decimal digits or Letters of the alphabet.
– The groups of bits are used to develop complete sets of
instructions for performing various types of computations.

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 Digital Computers
• A Computer System:
– It is composed of its hardware and the system software available
for its use.
– Sometimes subdivided into two functional entities:
• The hardware and the software.
• The hardware of the computer:
– Consists of all the electronic components and electromechanical
device.
– Usually divided into three major parts:
• The central processing unit (CPU)
• The memory
• The input and output processor(IOP).
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 The Software Component:
• The computer Software:
– It is consists of the set of instructions and related data that the
computer manipulates to perform data-processing tasks and
– Telling to a computer what to do and how to do it.
– A sequence of instruction for the computer is called a program.
• Therefore, Software is a set of programs, procedures, algorithms and
its documentation concerned with the operation of a data processing
system
• There are two major categories of software:
A.System software and
B. Application software.

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 The Software Component:
• System software:
– It provides the basic functions for computer usage and helps to
run the computer hardware and system.
– It is a programs that support the execution and development of
other programs.
– It helps you to manage your files, to load and execute programs,
and to accept your commands from the mouse and keyboard.
– It is an essential part of the computer system.
• System software includes:
– Operating systems,
– Compilers,
– Assemblers and Device drivers.
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 The Software Component:
• The compiler:
– Is a system program that translates the high-level language
program to machine language.
• Operating system:
– Is a system software programs that manage the computer.
– Controls and manages the computing resources:
– Important services that an operating system provides:
• File system: Directories, folders, files
• Commands that allow for manipulation of the file system:
Sort, delete, copy
• Ability to perform input and output on a variety of devices
• Management of the running systems.
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 The Software Component:
• Application software:
– Application software is developed to perform any task that
benefits from computation and for the purpose of solving
particular problems.
– Example:
• A high-level language program written by a user to solve
particular data-processing needs is an application program.
– It is a set of programs that allows the computer to perform a
specific data processing job for the user.
– This category includes:
• Media player software, Internet browsers, Image editing,
Mathematical software, Simulation software, Spreadsheets,
Video editing software, Word processing, AutoCAD.
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 Parts of Computer hardware
• The hardware of the computer is usually divided into three major
parts: as shown in Fig.1.1.
a. The central processing unit (CPU)
b. The memory
c. The input and output processor(IOP).

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 Digital Computers
• The central processing unit (CPU) :
– A hardware that interprets and executes software and
coordinates all hardware.
– It is a brain of the computer.
– It Contains:
• An arithmetic and logic unit for manipulating data,
• A number of registers for storing data, and
• Control unit
– For fetching and executing instructions.
– Directs what happens in the CPU and the rest of
your computer
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 Digital Computers
• The memory of a computer :
– Contains storage for instructions and data.
– It is called a random access memory (RAM) because the CPU can
access any location in memory at random and retrieve the binary
information within a fixed interval time.
• The input and output processor (IOP) :
– Contains, electronic circuits for communicating and controlling
the transfer of information between the computer and the
outside world.
– The input and output devices connected to the computer include:
• keyboards, printers, terminals, and other communication
devices.

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 Digital Computers
• So.

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 Computer Organization, Design, Architecture
• When dealing with computer hardware it is customary to distinguish
between what is referred to as:
– Computer Architecture
– Computer Organization and
– Computer Design

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 Computer Organization, Design, Architecture
• Computer Architecture:
– It is concerned with the specifications of the various functional
modules, such as processors and memories and structuring them
together into a computer system.
– A computer architect, however, is not concerned with the internal
details of the components(e.g. ALU).
– Architecture is those attributes visible to the programmer
includes:
• Instruction set, number of bits used for data representation,
I/O mechanisms, addressing techniques.
– For example:
• It is an architectural design issues whether the computer
system will have a multiply instructions.
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 Computer Organization, Design, Architecture
• Computer Organization:
– It is concerned with the way the hardware computer operate and
the way they are connected together to form the computer s/m.
– The various components are assumed to be in place and the task
is to investigate the organizational structure to verify that the
computer parts operate.
– It refers to the operational units and their interconnections that
realize the architectural specifications.
– Organizational attributes includes those hardware details
transparent to the programmer such as control signals, interfaces
between the computer and peripherals, and memory technology.
– For example: It is an organizational issues whether the multiply
instruction will be implemented by special multiply unit or by a
mechanism that makes repeated use of the add unit of the
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system.
 Computer Organization, Design, Architecture
• Computer Design:
– It is concerned with the hardware design of the computer.
– Once the computer specification is formulated, it is the task of
the designer to develop hardware for the system.
– It is also concerned with the determination of what hardware
should be used and how the parts should be connected.
– This aspect of computer hardware is sometimes referred to as
computer implementation.
– Implementers are responsible for implementing the designs
produced by computer architects.
– This group works at the digital logic level.
– At this level, logic gates and other hardware circuits are used to
implement the various functional units.
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Contd…

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 Logic gates
 The manipulation of binary information is done by logic
circuit called “gate”.
 Blocks of H/W that produce signals of binary 1 or 0 when
input logic requirements are satisfied.
 These are: complement (NOT), transfer(buffer), AND, OR,
NAND, NOR, exclusive-OR, and equivalence
 The graphic symbols and truth tables of the eight gates
are shown in the next two slides.

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Contd…

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Contd…

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 Boolean algebra
• Boolean Algebra
 Deals with binary variable (A, B, x, y: T/F or 1/0)+ logic operation
(AND, OR, NOT…)
 It is the mathematics of logic circuit that represent the r/n ship of
binary inputs with binary output
 The Purpose of Boolean Algebra is To facilitate the analysis and design
of digital circuit
 Boolean Function: variable + operation
 It contain the variable,AND, OR,NOT gates, parenthesis and an equal
sign.
Example: F(x,y,z)= x + y’z
 Truth Table: is the Relationship between a function and variable.
for n-input variable there is possible Combinations.
 Logic Diagram: is the conversion of Algebraic Expression into Logic 20
 Contd…
Truth Table
Logic Diagram

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 Combinational circuits
 A connected arrangement of logic gates with a set of inputs and
outputs.
 outputs at any time are determined from the present combination
of inputs. E.g half adder,full adder, decoder, encoder, multiplexer, …
 Combinational circuit consist of
– Input variables
– Logic gates(for Accept signals from the inputs and Generate signals
to the output )
– Output variables

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 Cont’d…
y y
Half Adder x y c s x
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 c
y
0 1 0 1 x 0 1 x 1 0
1 0 0 1 c = xy s = xy’ + x’y s
1 1 1 0 =x  y
Full Adder
y y
x y cn-1 cn s
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
0 0 1 0 1 0 1 c 1 0 cn-1
n-1
0 1 0 0 1 x 1 1 x 0 1
0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0
1 0 0 0 1 cn s
1 0 1 1 0
1 1 0 1 0 cn = xy + xcn-1+ ycn-1
1 1 1 1 1 = xy + (x  y)cn-1
s = x’y’cn-1+x’yc’n-1+xy’c’n-1+xycn-1
x = x  y  cn-1 = (x  y)  cn-1
y S
cn-1
cn
 Flip flops
 Are the storage elements employed in clocked sequential circuit.
 A binary cell capable of storing one bit of information.
 There are three operations that can be performed with a flip –
flop: Set it to 1, Reset it to 0 and Complement its output
 The most common types of flip flop are SR,D,JK and T-Flip Flops.

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SR Flip-Flop Contd…

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D flip-Flop

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JK Flip-Flop

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T Flip-Flop

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Sequential Circuits

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