Flow of incompressible fluid through pipe/tube

• Incompressible fluids who’s density does not vary significantly.

• Pipes are widely used for transportations of fluids because the withstanding
capacity at pressure difference of outside and inside pipe. Also, circular cros section
is a standard configuration for various calculations.
Macroscopic momentum balance
• The sum of all the forces acting on the fluid
Is equals to time rate of change of momentum
Between exit and entrance of pipe.
In mathematical form,

Here, Pa and Pb are inlet and outlet pressures

Fw is the wall forces on fluid.
Fg is the gravitational force oppose to flow.

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 Shear-stress distribution in cylindrical tube
• Consider the flow of fluid in a cylin.tube
P is upstream pressure
P+dP is the downstream pressure
If we consider, flow is fully developed
βa = βb, and
Substituation in momentum balance equation, it gives

• The shear forces due to viscosity between two layers is equals to product of shear
stress and cylindrical surface area. Fg=0; pipe is parallel to ground.

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• For entire cros section, by taking

Substracting above two equations, it gives

Fig. The variation of shear

stress Vs radius of cylinder.

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 Relation between skin friction and wall shear
• Here, the skin friction signifies the friction between wall and fluid layer.

Pressure drop between two position of same layer is

equals to skin friction.

• By substitution into pressure change equation of last slide

Here, D is diameter of cylinder.

• Friction factor / Fanning friction factor ( f)

Ratio of wall shear stress to density and

velocity head.

• Darcy friction factor = 4*f

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• By substituation, we get the relationship between f and pressure drop

• The above all equations are applicable to laminar and turbulent flow with steady
state and full developed characteristics.

Laminar flow of Newtonian fluids

• The variation of local velocity w.r.t. Radius i.e. Crossectional area in circular tube

By substituation, U=umax when r=0 substitute

For newtonian fluid,

Integrate with boundary

As we know, Ratio of local to maximum
condition,
velocity,
u=0 ; r=rw

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Average velocity, kinetic energy correction factor and momentum correction factor for
laminar flow of Newtonian Fluids :
1) Average velocity:
Home work : Kinetic energy correction factor is
equals to 2 for laminar flow, 1 for fully developed
turbulent flow and momentum correction factor
is equal to 4/3 for laminar flow.
S = pi*rw 2
, we get

The average velocity is one

half of maximum velocity.

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 Calculations of pressure drop due to skin friction –Hagen –Poiseuille equation

We know,

Replace wall shear by pressure drop using above 2 equns

Hence,

Final equation gives

,But

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 Friction factor chart
• Effect of variation in Reynold’s number on f for various values of roughness factor
on log-log graph

• Roughness factor = k/D, Here D is pipe diameter.

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 Flow past immersed body
• The interest of this topic to study the effect of fluid on immersed body , which is in it’s flow.
• It is not very important that whether solid or fluid is in rest.

Drag : The force exerted by fluid on the solid body in the direction of flow.
According to Newton’s third law, an equal amount of force exerted
By solid body on fluid called as thrust, which force the airplane to move
Through the air.
• If the wall of solid body is parallel to flow of fluid then drag force
is equal to only wall shear.
• If the wall of solid body is perpendicular to flow of fluid then drag force
Is the sum of pressure force (form drag) and wall shear.
• For potential flow, wall shear is zero hence net rate of drag force is zero.
• For inclined solid body,

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 Drag coefficient
• It is an analogy with friction factor in flow of fluid through conduits.
• Drag coefficient is the ratio of
= (drag force / projected area on perpendicular plane ) / ( velocity head *density)
Ex. 1) Spherical shape solid

Ap = ( pi*Dp2 /4)
CD = drag coeff. = (FD /Ap) / ( ρ uo 2 /2)

2)
Cylindrical shape solid
i) If axis of cylinder is parallel to flow, Ap = area of circle
ii) If axis of cylinder id perpendicular to flow, A p = L*Dp

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Dependency of drag coefficient on Reynold’s number

• If Reynold’s number is less than unity ( < 1) for spherical shaped solid body, by Stoke’s theoretical equation

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 Airfoil and stagnation point.
• The shape of airfoil is to decrease the form drag in the fluid flowing over it. \
• It separates the flow of fluid in upward and downward direction to reduce the form
drag.
• Point B is designating the stagnation point or
Nose of body where fluid reaches at zero velocity.
• Applying Bernollies equation between
Undisturbed and stagnation point produces

• The pressure head change of streamline passing through the stagnation point is
maximum because entire velocity head approaches to point B is converted into
pressure head.
• The above equation can be valid for compressible fluid having Mach Number less
than 0.4

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 Mach Number: Ernest Mach: An Austrian philosopher cum scientist.
• It is a ratio of speed of source in a medium to speed of sound waves in the same
medium at given conditions of temperature and pressure.
Ex. Mach 2 or Mach 1.8 –usually for high speed aircrafts , it means it travels 2 or 1.8
times of speed of sound at given conditions.
• At sea level @ 20 Deg.C , speed of sound waves is 340 m/s . Speed of sound is
much more higher in liquid or non-porous solid compared to the air.
• Speed of light in vacuum is 3*108 m/sec , means sunrays takes 8 mins and 19
seconds to reach earth.
• Temperature is directly proportional to the Mach Number.

Stagnation pressure calculations for range of Mach Number (0< N ma <1.0 )

For isentropic conditions of compressible fluid,

Here, γ = Cp /Cv
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 Flow through beds of solids ( Packed bed)
• The flow of fluid through bed of solids is used in plenty of applications such as
purifications, catalytic reactors, filtration etc.
• The channels of flow of fluid is irregular and moves through spaces between solid
particles.
• Total void area is only utilize to flow of fluid.
• Sphericity ( Sp ) is ratio of surface-volume ratio of spherical particle of diameter D p to
surface-volume ratio of the particle whose nominal diameter D p
Hence,

• For granular solids, sphericity ranges between 0.6-0.95

• ϵ = porosity or void fraction, then volume fraction in the bed is 1- ϵ
• Here, porosity we are considering only external passage not the porous nature of solids.
Calculations of equivalent diameter of channel (D eq )
Surface area of n parallel channels of length L is equal to surface-volume ratio times the
particle volume------,and void volume in the bed is same as total volume of n channels

, and ,

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 Here, V- is average velocity and Vo- is superfacial or empty tower velocity.

According to H-P equation of laminar flow of fluid through straight tube

Here, λ1 consider the tortueous nature of

channel / torteosity factor.

The empirical studies gives the final form

Kozeny-Carman equation for laminar flow

having particle Reynold’s number < 1.0

• For Reynold’s number greater than 1000, pressure drop is varies with the 1.9 to 2.0
power of superficial velocity. For turbulent flow in pipe, pressure drop is given by
following equations,

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 Burke-Plummer equation
for high Reynold’s number
> 1000
• For entire range if Reynol’d number, Ergun equation

• For the mixtures of various size of particles , in place of D p , we have to use the
surface mean diameter of the mixture Ds – , calculated from the number of particles
Ni in each size range or from the mass fraction in each size range x i

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 Motion of particles through fluids
• In various mechanical operations, especially separation processes, the solid
particles flow through the fluid.
Ex. Separation of dust / fumes from air, separation of solid particles from municipal
waste etc.
• The movement of particle in a fluid depends on forces generated due to external
force or by density difference between particle and fluid.
• According to second law of Newton’s, the resultant of all forces is equal to rate of
change of momentum of particle.
• Fe is an external force due to gravitational or centrifugal
FD is drag force parallel to movement of particle
caused due to relative motion of particle and fluid, acts
in opposite direction.
Movement
FB is buoyancy force or upward thrust force by
of particle
fluid on particle. Opposite to direction of movement Fe FD FB
of particle.
In mathematical form, we can write
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• Here,

• Substitute and simplification gives,

• Motion from gravitational force, ae is g

Hence,

• If motion of particle circular due to centrifugal forces

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Terminal Velocity
• When upward forces balanced by driving forces, then particle flow in a constant
velocity which is maximum at any circumstances. Hence, from previous formulae,
by taking du/dt = 0, we get

• By centrifugal force effect,

• Types of settling:
1) Free settling: Where we consider particle is very far from container wall and not
affected by the motion of other particles.
2) Hindered setting: Opposite to free settling.

Drag coefficient is larger in hindered settling compared to free settling.

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 Drag coefficient of spherical particle

• Increase in Reynold no. Of particle decreases the drag coefficient, with increase in
drag force.
• For motion of spherical particle,

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• The equation of terminal velocity in gravitational region gives,

• For low particle Reynold’s number (Stokes law, Nre ,p<1.0)

• For higher particle Reynold’s number, ( Newton’s law region 1000 < Nre,p <2,00,000

• In stokes law region, ut is proportional to square of particle diameter, however in

Newton’s law region proportional to square root of particle diameter.

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 Criterion for settling regime

1) Stoke’s law region i.e. Nre,p <1.0

If Nre,p = 1.0 then K =2.6

2) Newton’s law range, 1000 < Nre,p < 2,00,000

For, 68.9 < Nre,p < 2360 , newton’s law applies.

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 Fluidization
• Fluidization is used in handling of solids . When solids are fully fluidized in liquid/
gas at given velocity then solids are behave like a fluid.
• In increase of velocity the pressure drop and drag on particles are increased.

VoM is minimum fluidized velocity.

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 Minimum fluidized velocity

Ergun equation can be rearranged to,

Rearranging for minimum fluidization condition, it gives from above two equations

1 ) If we have considered only laminar flow( Nre,p <1 ) of fluid then only first term of
Ergun equation will be utilized and simplified into following form

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2) For large range of Reynold’s number ( Nre,p > 1000) second term will be utilized.

i) We know, for Nre,p < 1.0, Stokes law range gaves

The relationship of terminal velocity to minimum fluidized velocity

For regular spherical shaped particles,ϵM is between 0.40 to 0.45

If ϵM = 0.45, ut is 50 times of min. Fluidized velocity. Suppose min.velocity is 10
mm/s then we can operate the bed at 400 mm/s. A

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ii) For spherical particles with Nre,p>1000, by Newton’s law range

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