Power Series, Taylor and Maclaurin Series

Prerequisite knowledge for the lecture: Sequence, series and their properties.

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 Revision
 Sequence: An infinite sequence is an ordered list of numbers of the form
Sometimes sequences are defined by explicit formulas, in which case where is a
real valued function.
For example: .
 Series: An infinite series is an expression of the form

For each positive integer , the sum

is called the partial sum of the infinite series.

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Can we define a new
function, approximate to a
function or represent a
function in simpler way
with the help of well known
function?

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 Learning outcomes

Power Series and Its convergence:

1. Identify a power series and provide examples of them.
2. Determine the radius of convergence and interval of convergence of a power series.
3. Use a power series to represent a function.

Taylor Series & Maclaurin’s Series:

Describe the procedure for finding a Taylor’s and Maclaurin’s
series of a given function.

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 Power Series
A power series is a type of series with terms involving a variable. More specifically, if the
variable is , then all the terms of the series involve powers of . As a result, a power series
Here,can
1/1 isbe thought
called the firstof as an
term, 1/2 infinite polynomial.
is the second term, and so on. We call a(n) = 1/n the general term, since it gives a general
formula for computing all the terms of the sequence.
Definition: A series of the form is a power series centered at .
OR
A series of the form is a power series centered at . For example: , .

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 Convergence of a Power Series
Since the terms in a power series involve a variable , the series may converge for certain values
of and diverge for other values of . Consider the power series . The series satisfies exactly one of
the following properties:
1. The series converges at and diverges for all
.
Here, 1/1 is called the first term, 1/2 is the second term, and so on. We call a(n) = 1/n the general term, since it gives a general
2. The series converges for all real numbers .
formula for computing all the terms of the sequence.
3. There exists a real number such that the series
converges if and diverges if
At the values where , the series may
converge or diverge then is said to be radius of convergence .
The set of all values of where the series converges is called the
interval of convergence.

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Note: To determine the interval of convergence or radius of convergence for a power series, we
typically apply the ratio test.
Example 1: For what value of x do the each of the following series converges, find the interval and
radius of convergence.(a) (b) , (c) , (d)
Solution: (a) To check for convergence, apply the ratio test. We have

Case 1. that is , the series converges absolutely.

Case 2. that is , the series diverges.

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Case 3. The ratio test is inconclusive if that is if We need to test these values of separately.

For , the series is given by

This is the harmonic series, which is divergent. We conclude that the interval of convergence
is and the radius of convergence is .
Solution: (d) To check for convergence, apply the ratio test. We have

Case 1. that is , the series converges absolutely.

Case 2. that is , the series diverges.

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Case 3. The ratio test is inconclusive if that is if or We need to test these
values of separately.
For , the series is given by

Since this is the alternating harmonic series, it converges.

For , the series is given by

This is the harmonic series, which is divergent. We conclude that the interval of
convergence is and the radius of convergence is .

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 Activity-1

Find the interval and radius of

convergence for the series

1)

Use a power series to represent each of the

following functions . Find the interval of
convergence.

2) 2)

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 Representing Functions as Power Series
Being able to represent a function by an “infinite polynomial” is a powerful tool. Polynomial
functions are the easiest functions to analyze, since they only involve the basic arithmetic
operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division.
Here, 1/1 is called the first term, 1/2 is the second term, and so on. We call a(n) = 1/n the general term, since it gives a general
Wecomputing
formula for know that theterms
all the geometric series converges as
of the sequence.
for .
As a result, we are able to represent the function by the power series
, when .

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 Activity-2

If a power series represents a function

on an interval , then what can we say
about the function
1. Is the function continuous on its
domain of definition?
2. Can be differentiated by term-wise
differentiation of its series?
3. Can be integrated by term-wise
integration of its series?

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 Graphing a Function and Partial Sums of its Power Series
We now show graphically how this power series provides a representation for the function by
comparing the graph of with the graphs of several of the partial sums of corresponding infinite series.
Now, we sketch a graph of and the graphs of the
Here, 1/1 is called thepartial
corresponding first term, 1/2 isfor
sums the second term, and so on. We call a(n) = 1/n the general term, since it gives a general
formula for computing all the terms of the sequence.
on the interval . We see that as increases,
becomes a better approximation for for in the
interval .
.

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 Taylor and Maclaurin series

If has derivatives of all orders at , then the Taylor series for the function at
is

The Taylor series for at a is known as the Maclaurin series for .

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 To determine if a Taylor series converges, we need to look at its sequence of partial
sums. These partial sums are finite polynomials, known as Taylor polynomials.

Taylor Polynomials:
If has derivatives at , then the degree Taylor polynomial of at is
Here, 1/1 is called the first term, 1/2 is the second term, and so on. We call a(n) = 1/n the general term, since it gives a general
formula for computing all the terms of the sequence.

The degree Taylor polynomial of at a is known as the degree Maclaurin

polynomial for .

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Example: Find the Taylor s generated by at a.
Solution: To find Taylor series, we need to evaluate and its few derivatives at a.
; ; .
Therefore, the Taylor series at a=2 is
Example: Find the Taylor series and Taylor polynomial generated by at a=0.
Solution: Since we know that for all positive integers Therefore
for all positive integers Taylors

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Example: Find the Taylor polynomials and for at . Use a graphing utility to
compare the graph of f with the graphs of and .
Solution: To find these Taylor polynomials, we need to evaluate and its first three
derivatives at .
; 1; .
Therefore,

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,

+
.

The graph of and the first three

Taylor polynomials are shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1: The function and

the Taylor polynomials
are plotted on this graph

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 Activity-3

Find the Taylor polynomials , and Taylor series

for

1. at

2. at

3. at

4. at

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Solution: Since we know that
Example: Find the Maclaurin’s series generated by

.
.
.

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The function and the first three Maclaurin
polynomials are shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2: The graph shows the function

and the Maclaurin polynomials and

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 Activity-4

For each of the following functions. Find

formulas for the Maclaurin polynomials
and. Find a formula for the -degree
Maclaurin polynomial and write it using
sigma notation. Use a graphing utility to
compare the graphs of and with

.
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 Summary
We have discussed:
• Power series: a series of the form is a power series centered at x=0; a series of
the form is a power series centered at .
• Interval of convergence: the set of real numbers for which a power series
converges
• Radius of convergence: if there exists a real number such that a power series
centered at converges for and diverges for , then is the radius of convergence;
if the power series only converges at , the radius of convergence is ; if the power
series converges for all real numbers , the radius of convergence is .
• Taylor series: a power series at that converges to a function on some open
interval containing .

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 Summary
• Taylor polynomials: the nth -degree Taylor polynomial for at is .
• Maclaurin series: a Taylor series for a function at a is known as a
Maclaurin series for
• Maclaurin polynomial: a Taylor polynomial centered at ; the nth-degree
Taylor polynomial for at is the nth-degree Maclaurin polynomial for

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 Practice Questions
 True or False? In exercises 1 - 4, justify your answer with a proof or a counterexample.
1) If the radius of convergence for a power series is , then the radius of convergence for the
series is also
2) Power series can be used to show that the derivative of is .
3) For small values of
4) The radius of convergence for the Maclaurin series of is .
 In exercises 5 - 6, find the radius of convergence and the interval of convergence for the
given series.
5)
6)
 In exercises 7 - 8, find the power series for the given function using term-by-term
differentiation or integration.
7)

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 Practice Questions
 Find the Taylor series at the at the specified point
9)
10)
11)
 Find the Maclaurin series for the given function.
12)
13)

15)
14)

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