UNIT II

Performance of Transmission lines

• The technical analysis of transmission line is done to know its
performance to transfer power from the sending end to the receiving
end.
• Performance of a transmission line includes efficiency and regulation.
• For bulk power transfer, three-phase transmission lines are used but for
analysis purposes, line can be represented by its single-phase
equivalent using the phase resistance, phase inductance and line to
neutral capacitance with assumption that supply and load are balanced
in transmission line.
• Since the resistance, inductance, capacitance and conductance are
Representation of lines
Short transmission lines- A line having length less than 80 km and
line voltage less than 20 KV is called a short line. The charging of
capacitance (shunt) can be ignored in the analysis and series
resistance and inductance can be treated as lumped parameter.

Medium length transmission lines- If the transmission line is between 80 km and 200 km, the
charging capacitance of the line cannot be ignored however the series impedance can be taken
as lumped parameters.
Charging capacitance is also considered as lumped parameters and can be represented as
nominal-T and nominal-pi. These are called so because line parameters are considered as lumped
parameter that is not accurate.

Long transmission lines- The line more than 200 km mile is called long lines, whose exact
representation is required. The line can also be represented as T or p but since line parameters are
taken as distributed parameters, they are known as equivalent-T and equivalent-r representations.
General definitions of efficiency and regulation in
per unit are:

Regulation of transmission line is defined as the ratio of change in voltage at the receiving end,
from no load to full load keeping the sending-end voltage and frequency constant, to the full load
voltage.
SHORT TRANSMISSION LINES
• Receiving-end current is taken as reference.
• R and X are per-phase resistance and
inductance.

Squaring and adding,

Using Taylor series expansion and neglecting the higher order terms, we obtain
Taking receiving-end voltage and current as base values, vr and vx represent per unit resistance and
reactance of the line respectively.
For zero regulation,

For zero regulation the power factor of load must be leading.

MEDIUM LINES
• Since capacitance is distributed over the line, but for analysis
purposes, this can be assumed as lumped parameter either at
the centre of line (nominal-T) or at both the ends of a
transmission line (nominal-pi).
• These are called nominal-T or nominal pi because, it is
approximate
Nominal-T representation due consideration of distributed
Representation
parameters as lumped parameters
• For analysis, it is preferable to take the receiving-end current
as reference.

The voltage at point C will be

Phasor diagram of nominal-T
representation
 Nominal-p Representation
For analysis, it is convenient to take voltage as reference.

For calculation of regulation, receiving-end voltage at no-load

can be
calculated as
Long Transmission lines:
• For the lines more than 200 km, distributed
parameters are considered for accuracy of
analysis where voltage and current vary at each
point in the transmission line.
• Receiving end is taken as reference for
measuring the distances.
• For analysis, an incremental length ⌂x is
considered, as shown in Figure
z = Series impedance per unit length
y = Shunt admittance per unit length
l = Length of line
Z = zl = Total series impedance
Y = yl = Total shunt admittance
If the voltage and current at distance x is V and I
respectively, these will be V+ ⌂ V and I + ⌂ I at distance
x + ⌂ x respectively,

⌂ I = Vy ⌂ x and ⌂ V = (I + ⌂ I) z ⌂ x = Iz ⌂ x [I >> ⌂ I]

If considered section ⌂ x is very small

 Using the limiting
conditions,
i.e. at x = 0, V = Vr and I =
Ir

Solve the 2nd order homogeneous eqn.

where = ꙋ = a + jb is called the propagation constant

which is a
complex quantity. Here, a is called attenuation constant
and b is called phase constant and has unit of radian/unit
length. Now, differentiating Equation

Sending-end voltage and current

equations can be obtained by putting
x = l in above Equations

which is known as characteristic impedance

Surge impedance and surge impedance loading

Characteristic impedance is defined as the square root of the ratio of series impedance to shunt
admittance which is a complex quantity. The phase angle of transmission line is usually less than 15°.

If the line is lossless (r = 0 and g = 0), the characteristic

impedance is known as surge impedance, that is a pure
resistance and can be written as
• Normally, surges are of high frequencies and therefore losses are neglected.
• Thus in case of lossless line, the term ‘surge impedance’ is used instead of ‘characteristic
impedance’.
• It should be noted that surge impedance or characteristic impedance is independent of the
length of lines.
• Surge impedance of overhead lines and cables depends on the configuration of conductors and
their placing. The approximate value of surge impedance for overhead lines is 400 ohm and for
Surge cables it is 40 ohm.
impedance loading (SIL) of a line is the power transmitted when a lossless line operating
• Since distances between cable conductors are small, the value of inductance is smaller and
at its nominal voltage, is terminated with a resistance equal to surge impedance of the line. It is
also capacitance is relatively
called as natural loadinghigher
of the compared
line, whichtoindicates
overhead lines,
that it isthus low surge impedance.
the maximum power that can be
delivered and is useful in transmission line
design.
Ferranti effect:
• In long transmission lines and cables, receiving-end voltage is greater than sending-end
voltage during light-load or no-load operation. This occurs due to high-charging current. This
effect is known as ferranti effect.
• When an open-circuited line (no-load) is charged, it draws significant amount of current due
to capacitive effect of the line.
• This is more in high-voltage long transmission lines. Ferranti effect can be understood as
Sending-end voltage of long transmission line at
follows.
x=l

Under no-load (Ir = 0),

• It is seen that the value of Vr is always greater or equal to Vs because the

value of cosh (cl) is always less than or equal to unity.
• Actual value depends on the cl, which is a function of inductance,
capacitance and length of the line.
ABCD CONSTANTS:
• It is important to represent the transmission line in terms of the sending- and receiving-end
voltages and currents.
• A transmission line can be represented as four-terminal (2-port) network, as shown in Figure.
• This terminal pair circuit is passive (no energy source), linear (where impedances are
independent
Following of the can
relationships amount of current flowing through the element) and bilateral (where
be established,
impedances are independent of direction of current flow).

In matrix form,

where A, B, C and D are generalized circuit constants and hold the following
properties:
1. These are complex constants.
2. They hold, AD – BC = 1.
3. If symmetrical network, A = D.
4. A, D are dimensionless.
5. B is impedance, C admittance.
Proof of AD – BC = 1
Consider Figure (a), where an ideal voltage source (with zero internal impedance) is connected
to sending-end, and receiving-end is short-circuited with zero impedance. Thus Vr = 0 and
following relations can be obtained

Suppose the sending-end is short-circuited and the same ideal voltage (E) is applied at the
receiving-end.

Using reciprocating theorem,

This relation is very useful for checking the constants A, B, C and D which are
 Sometimes it is also important to represent the receiving-end voltage and current in terms of
sending-end voltage and current with the help of A, B, C and D parameters.

Pre-multiplying Equations 1 and Pre-multiplying Equations 1 and

2 by C and A respectively, 2 by B and D respectively,

Subtracting the above Equations and

Subtracting the above Equations and using relationship AD – BC = 1
using relationship AD – BC = 1
Constants for two networks in tandem
• Let two 2-port networks having constants A1, B1, C1, D1 and A2, B2, C2, D2, respectively be
connected in tandem.
• If the receiving-end voltage and current of first network are V and I which are also sending-end
voltage and current for the second network, the resultant constants A, B, C, D can be calculated as
follows:

Constants for two networks connected in

• Let two 2-port networks having constants A1, B1,
parallel
C1, D1 and A2, B2, C2, D2, respectively be
connected in parallel as.
• If the sending-end and receiving-end currents
are and in the first network and are the sending-
end and receiving-end currents in the second
network, the resultant constants A, B, C, D can
be calculated as follows:
For the first and second network, following relations
 Since

Pre-multiplying Eqn. (1) by B2 and Eqn. (3) by B1 and

adding,

Adding Equations (2) and (4),

Substitute Ir1, eqn(1)

Since transmission line is symmetrical, hence A =
D, where

C can be determined using A, B and D from above

Eqns and putting in AD – BC = 1
POWER FLOW THROUGH A TRANSMISSION LINE
• Figure shows the transmission line connected with load. At sending end, a power source is
supplying the power to the load.
• Receiving end is assumed as reference.
• The sending-end angle d should be positive because real power flows from higher angle to lower
angle.
• It is also true that reactive power always flows from higher voltage to lower voltage, which varies
throughout the line.
•The
The direction
sending of real power
quantities can beflow is same throughout
represented in terms of the line, however, reactive power depends on
the voltage
constants A, B,profile
C, D ofofthe
theline
line.as

We can derive the current equations as

Let
Receiving-end power It can be seen that the maximum power (Prmax)
Receiving-end complex power (keeping voltages constant) received by the load
will be at b = d, because a and b are constants and
depend on the line configuration and design.
Therefore, we get

If Vs, Vr are in kV and are line voltages, the

complex power will be a 3 phase power in These equations indicate that load must draw
MVA. leading reactive power to receive maximum real
Real power (Pr) and reactive power (Qr) at power.
receiving end can be written as
 real power (Pr) and reactive power (Qr) at receiving end can be
written as

1. Receiving-end power will be maximum at d = 90°.

2. Receiving-end power can be increased by increasing
sending-end voltage magnitude |Vs| and/or receiving-end
voltage magnitude .
3. Reducing reactance of the line can increase receiving-end
Normally,
power. angle d is very small

The reactive power is directly proportional to the difference in the voltage magnitudes.
It also indicates that the reactive power is mainly dependent on the voltage however
real power is mainly dependent on the angle d.
Sending-end power
• At this point it is obvious to think why we use voltages in power calculation rather than current.
• The main reason is that voltages are easily obtainable and in current, direction is involved but in
voltage it is not.
• Sending-end power (taking RE voltage as reference) can be written as

At the sending end, the real power can be written

as

It can be seen that the sending-end power will be maximum at d + b = r. The maximum
sending-end power will be

Thus, the transmission real power loss, PL = –Pr +

Ps.
Circle diagram
• Sometimes it is easier to calculate the quantities using the circle diagram.
• Sending-end and receiving-end circle diagrams can be drawn separately.
• Consider the circle diagram for receiving end.
• If the power factor at receiving end is ir, we can write Eqn for real power Pr as

Squaring and adding Real power (Pr) and Reactive power (Qr)

If Pr and Qr are on the x-axis and y-axis

respectively, The above Eqn shows a circle having
radius and centre of

And
circle diagram of receiving-end power For given Pr, ir, Vr and ABCD constants, sending-end
voltage can be
determined using the receiving-end circle diagram.
Following steps must be used
(a) Convert the three-phase quantities into per phase
quantities, such as
power and voltages.
(b) Calculate (|A|/|B|)
(c) Choose a suitable scale by looking Pr and (|A|/|B|)
(d) Draw a horizontal line and set a point n. Draw line nq
with an angle ir and cut it at m with value
(e) Drawn a line no of length with angle b – a in
third quadrant.
(f) Connect o with m and measure om and convert to kVA
with scale which will be equal to .
(g) Calculate the value of