Electrical Engineering EE-204

Dr. Saurabh Ratra

Assistant Professor
Department of Electrical Engineering & IT
• 9680857517- Dr. Saurabh Ratra
• [email protected]
Books
Practical Syllabus
 Transformer
• A Transformer is a static electrical machine which transfers AC
electrical power from one circuit to the other circuit at the constant
frequency, but the voltage level can be altered that means voltage
can be increased or decreased.

• It works on the principle of Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic

Induction which states that “ the magnitude of voltage is directly
proportional to the rate of change of flux.”
 Magnetic Hysteresis

• The phenomenon of flux density B lagging behind the magnetizing

force H in a magnetic material is known as Magnetic Hysteresis.

• Paramagnetic, diamagnetic, ferromagnetic materials. Ferromagnetic

materials are mainly responsible for the generation of the hysteresis
loop.

• Paramagnetic: Aluminum, gold, and copper

• Diamagnetic: Carbon, copper
• Ferromagnetic: Cold rolled grain oriented steel (CRGO)
BH Curve
Consider a ring of magnetic material
wound uniformly with solenoid. The
solenoid is connected to a DC source
through a Double pole double throw
(D.P.D.T) reversible switch as shown in the
figure
BH Curve
• Initially, the switch is in position 1.
• Decreasing the value of R the value of
the current in the solenoid increases.
• gradual increase in field intensity H, the
flux density also increases till it reaches
the saturation point a and the curve
obtained is ‘oa‘
• decreasing the current in the solenoid to
zero the magnetizing force is gradually
reduced to zero.
• But the value of flux density will not be
zero as it still has the value ‘ob‘ when
H=0
• This value ‘ob‘ of flux density is because
of the residual magnetism.
 Construction
• The primary winding, secondary winding and the magnetic core are
the three important of the transformer.
• These coils are insulated from each other.
• The main flux is induced in the primary winding of the transformer.
• This flux passes through the low reluctance path of the magnetic
core and linked with the secondary winding of the transformer.
• Consider the T1 and T2 are the numbers of the turn on the primary
and the secondary winding of the transformer.
• The voltage is applied to the primary winding of the transformer
because of which the current is induced in it.
• The current causes the magnetic flux which is represented by the
dotted line.
• The flux induces in the primary winding because of self-induction.
• This flux is linked with the secondary winding because of mutual
induction.
• Thus, the emf is induced in the secondary winding of the
transformer.
 EMF Equation of a Transformer

• Let
• ϕm be the maximum value of flux in Weber
• f be the supply frequency in Hz
• N1 is the number of turns in the primary winding
• N2 is the number of turns in the secondary winding
• Flux changes from + ϕm to – ϕm in half a cycle of 1/2f
seconds.
• By Faraday’s Law
• Let E1 be the emf induced in the primary winding

• Where Ψ = N1ϕ

• Since ϕ is due to AC supply ϕ = ϕm sinwt

• The Eq. 3 shows that induce EMF lags by 900
• Maximum valve of emf occurs when sin component =1
• But  2 f

• Root mean square RMS value is

• Putting the value of E1max in equation (6) we get

• Putting the value of π = 3.14 in the equation (7) we will get

the value of E1 as
• Similarly,

• Now, equating the equation (8) and (9) we get

• The above equation is called the turn ratio where K is known

as the transformation ratio.
 Peak Value, Average Value and RMS Value

• Peak Value
• The maximum value attained by an alternating
quantity during one cycle is called its Peak
value
• Average Value
• The average of all the instantaneous values of an alternating
voltage and currents over one complete cycle is
called Average Value.
• R.M.S Value
• That steady current which, when flows through a resistor of
known resistance for a given period of time than as a result
the same quantity of heat is produced by the alternating
current when flows through the same resistor for the same
period of time is called R.M.S.
• Let i1, i2, i3,………..in be the mid ordinates
• Then the heat produced in
 Transformer on No Load Condition

• When the transformer is operating at no load, the secondary

winding is open-circuited.
• there is no load on the secondary side of the transformer and,
therefore, current in the secondary will be zero.
• primary winding carries a small current I0 called no-load current
which is 2 to 10% of the rated current.
• This current is responsible for supplying the iron losses
(hysteresis and eddy current losses) in the core and a very small
amount of copper losses in the primary winding.
• The no-load current induces the magneto-motive force (MMF)
N0I0 and this force set up the flux Φ in the core of the
transformer.
 Transformer on No Load Condition
• Reactive or magnetizing component
Im
 It is in quadrature with the applied
voltage V1. It produces flux in the
core and does not consume any
power.

• Active or power component Iw

 It is in phase with the applied
voltage V1. It supplies the iron
losses and a small amount of
primary copper loss
 Steps to make Phasor diagram
• The function of the magnetizing component is to
produce the magnetizing flux, and thus, it will be
in phase with the flux.
•
Induced emf in the primary and the secondary
winding lags the flux ϕ by 90 degrees.
• The primary copper loss is neglected, and
secondary current losses are zero as
I2 = 0.
Therefore, the current I0 lags behind the voltage
vector V1 by an angle ϕ0 called the no-load power
factor angle and as shown

• The applied voltage V1 is drawn equal and opposite

to the induced emf E1 because the difference
between the two, at no load, is negligible.
• Active component Iw is drawn in phase with the
applied voltage V1.
• The phasor sum of magnetizing current I m and the
working current Iw gives the no-load current I0.
Transformer on No Load Condition
• From the phasor diagram drawn above, the following
conclusions are made
 Transformer On Load Condition

• When the transformer is on the loaded condition, the

secondary of the transformer is connected to load.
• The load can be resistive, INDUCTIVE or capacitive.
• The current I2 flows through the secondary winding of the
transformer.
• The magnitude of the secondary current depends on the
terminal voltage V2 and the load impedance.
• Impedance (Z)= R+jX
Equivalent Circuit of Transformer
Transformer On Load Condition
 Transformer On Load Condition
• When the load is connected to the
secondary of the transformer, I2 current
flows through their secondary winding.
• The secondary current induces the
magneto-motive force N2I2 on the
secondary winding of the transformer.
• This force set up the flux φ2 in the
transformer core.
• The flux φ2 opposes the flux φ, according
to Lenz’s law.
• As the flux φ2 opposes the flux φ, the
resultant flux of the transformer decreases
and this flux reduces the induced EMF E1
• Strength of the V1 is more than E1 and an
additional primary current I’1 drawn from
the main supply.
 Transformer On Load Condition
• The additional current is used for restoring
the original value of the flux in the core of
the transformer so that V1 = E1.
• The primary current I’1 is in phase
opposition with the secondary current I 2
• Therefore, it is called the primary counter-
balancing current.
• The additional current I’1 induces the
magneto-motive force N1I’1.
• And this force set up the flux φ’1
• The direction of the flux is the same as that
of the φ and it cancels the flux φ2
 Transformer On Load Condition
• Now, N1I1’ = N2I2

• The phase difference between V1 and I1 gives the power factor angle
ϕ1 of the primary side of the transformer.
• The power factor of the secondary side depends upon the type of
load connected to the transformer.
• If the load is inductive, the power factor will be lagging, and if the
load is capacitive, the power factor will be leading. The total
primary current I1 is the vector sum of the currents I0 and I1’. i.e.
 Steps to draw the phasor diagram

• Take flux ϕ,
• Induces emf E1 and E2 lags the
flux by 900.
• The component of the applied
voltage to the primary equal and
opposite to induced emf in the
primary winding. E1 is
represented by V1’.
• Current I0 lags the voltage V1’ by
900.
• The power factor of the load is
lagging. Therefore current I2 is
drawn lagging E2 by an angle ϕ2.
 Steps to draw the phasor diagram
• The resistance and the leakage
reactance of the windings result in a
voltage drop, and hence secondary
terminal voltage V2 is the phase
difference of E2 and voltage drop.
• V2 = E2 – voltage drops
I2 R2 is in phase with I2 and I2X2 is
in quadrature with I2.
• The total current flowing in the
primary winding is the phasor sum
of I1’ and I0.
• Primary applied voltage V1 is the
phasor sum of V1’ and the voltage
drop in the primary winding.
 Steps to draw the phasor diagram
• Current I1’ is drawn equal and opposite
to the current I2
• V1 = V1’ + voltage drop
I1R1 is in phase with I1 and I1XI is in
quadrature with I1.
• The phasor difference between V1 and
I1 gives the power factor angle ϕ1 of the
primary side of the transformer.
• If the load is inductive, the power factor
will be LAGGING, and if the load is
capacitive, the power factor will be
LEADING. Where I1R1 is the
resistive drop in the primary windings
I2X2 is the reactive drop in the
secondary winding
Equivalent Circuit of Transformer
 Equivalent Circuit of Transformer
• helpful in the pre-determination of the behavior of the
device under the various condition of operation.
• This calculation requires equivalent circuit of transformer
referred to the primary or equivalent circuit of transformer
referred to secondary sides respectively.
• parameter during installing a transformer in an existing
electrical power system.
• Percentage impedance of different power transformers
should be properly matched during parallel operation of
power transformers
 Equivalent Circuit When all the Quantities
are Referred to Primary side
• to draw the equivalent circuit
of the transformer all the
quantities are to be referred to
the primary as shown in the
figure
• the equivalent circuit of a
transformer having the
transformation ratio K = E2/E1
• Or 1/K=E1/E2

• The secondary
 Equivalent Circuit When all the Quantities
are Referred to Primary side
• Secondary resistance referred
to the primary side is given as

• The equivalent resistance

referred to the primary side is
given as

• Secondary reactance referred

to the primary side is given as
 Equivalent Circuit When all the Quantities
are Referred to Primary side
• The equivalent reactance
referred to the primary side is
given as

•
Equivalent Circuit when all the quantities are
referred to Secondary side
• Primary resistance referred to
the secondary side is given as

• The equivalent resistance

referred to the secondary side
is

• Primary reactance referred to

the secondary side is given as

• The equivalent reactance

referred to the secondary side
is
 Voltage Regulation of a Transformer

• The voltage regulation is defined as the change in the

magnitude of receiving and sending voltage of the
transformer.
• The voltage regulation determines the ability of the
transformer to provide the constant voltage for variable
loads.
• When the transformer is loaded with continuous supply
voltage, the terminal voltage of the transformer varies.
 Voltage Regulation
• Mathematically, the voltage regulation is represented as

• E2 – secondary terminal voltage at no load

• V2 – secondary terminal voltage at full load
 Voltage Regulation
• Let us understand the voltage regulation by taking an
example
• If the secondary terminals of the transformer are open-
circuited or no load is connected to the secondary terminals,
the no-load current flows through it.
• If the transformer is fully loaded, i.e., the load is connected
to their secondary terminal, the voltage drops appear across
it.
 Voltage Regulation
• By considering the circuit
diagram

• For inductive load

Voltage Regulation
 Transformer Efficiency

• The Efficiency of the transformer is defined as the ratio of

useful output power to the input power.
Maximum Efficiency Condition of a Transformer

• Points to be noted:
 The value of the terminal voltage V2 is approximately
constant.
 Thus, transformer efficiency depends upon the load current
I2.
 transformer efficiency will be maximum if the denominator
with respect to the variable I2 is equal to zero.
Maximum Efficiency Condition of a Transformer

• Copper losses = Iron losses

• Thus, the transformer will give the maximum efficiency
when their copper loss is equal to the iron loss.
Maximum Efficiency Condition of a Transformer

• From equation (2) the value of output current I2 at which the

transformer efficiency will be maximum is given as

• If x is the fraction of full load KVA at which the efficiency

of the transformer is maximum then, Copper losses = x2Pc
(where Pc is the full load copper losses)
• Iron losses = Pi
Maximum Efficiency Condition of a Transformer

• For maximum efficiency

• output KVA corresponding to maximum efficiency

Maximum Efficiency Condition of a Transformer

• Putting the value of x from the above equation (3) in equation

(4) we will get,

• The Equation (5) is the maximum efficiency condition of the

transformer.
Open Circuit and Short Circuit Test on Transformer

• The open circuit and short circuit test are performed for
determining the parameter of the transformer like their
efficiency, voltage regulation, etc.
• These tests are performed without the actual loading and
because of this reason the very less power is required for the
test.
• The open circuit and the short circuit test gives a very
accurate result as compared to the full load test.
Open Circuit Test Circuit diagram
 Open circuit test
• The purpose of the open-circuit test
is to determine the no-load current
and losses of the transformer
• because of which their no-load
parameters are determined.
• This test is performed on the
primary winding of the
transformer.
• The wattmeter, ammeter and the
voltage are connected to their
primary winding.
• The nominal rated voltage is
supplied to their primary winding
with the help of the ac source.
 Open circuit test
• The secondary winding of the
transformer is kept open, and the
voltmeter is connected to their
terminal.
• This voltmeter measures the
secondary induced voltage.
• The value of no-load current is very
small as compared to the full rated
current.
• The value of no-load current is very
small as compared to the full rated
current.
• The value of no-load current is very
small as compared to the full rated
current.
 Calculation of open-circuit test

• iron loss of the transformer Pi = W0 and

• no-load power factor is

• Working component Iw is
 Calculation of open-circuit test

• Putting the value of W0 from the equation (1) in equation (2)

value of the working component as

• Magnetizing component is
 Calculation of open-circuit test

• No-load parameters are given

 Equivalent resistance (R0)

 Equivalent reactance is (X0)

Open circuit test phasor diagram
 Short Circuit Test

• The short circuit test is performed for determining the below

mention parameter of the transformer.
 It determines the copper loss occur on the full load. The copper
loss is used for finding the efficiency of the transformer.
 The equivalent resistance, impedance, and leakage reactance are
known by the short circuit test.
• The short circuit test is performed on the secondary or high
voltage winding of the transformer.
• The measuring instrument like wattmeter, voltmeter and
ammeter are connected to the high voltage winding of the
transformer.
Short Circuit Test Circuit diagram
 Calculation of Short Circuit Test

• Then the full load copper loss of the transformer is given by

• Equivalent resistance referred to the secondary side is

 Calculation of Short Circuit Test

• From phasor

• Equivalent impedance referred

to the secondary side is given
by
• The equivalent reactance
referred to the secondary side
is given by