Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology

Seventh Edition
Elaine N. Marieb

Chapter 8
Special Senses

Slides 8.1 – 8.19

Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

The Senses
 General senses of touch (tactile)
 Temperature- thermoreceptors (heat)
 Pressure- mechanoreceptors (movement)
 Pain- mechanoreceptors
 Special senses
 Smell- chemoreceptors (chemicals)
 Taste- chemoreceptors
 Sight- photoreceptors (light)
 Hearing- mechanoreceptors
 Equilibrium- (balance) mechanoreceptors
The Eye and Vision
 70 percent of all sensory receptors are in
the eyes
 Each eye has over a million nerve fibers
 Protection for the eye
 Most of the eye is enclosed in a bony orbit
made up of the lacrimal (medial), ethmoid
(posterior), sphenoid (lateral), frontal
(superior), and zygomatic and maxilla (inferior)
 A cushion of fat surrounds most of the eye
 Accessory Structures of the Eye
 Eyelids-
brush
particles out
of eye or
cover eye
 Eyelashes-
trap
particles
and keep
them out of
the eye
 Accessory Structures of the Eye
 Ciliary glands –
modified
sweat glands
between the
eyelashes-
secrete acidic
sweat to kill
bacteria,
lubricate
eyelashes
 Accessory Structures of the Eye
 Conjunctiva
 Membrane that lines the eyelids
 Connects to the surface of the eye- forms a seal
 Secretes mucus to lubricate the eye

http://neuromedia.neurobio.ucla.edu/campbell/eyeandear/wp_images/175_conjunctiva.gif
 CONJUNCTIVITIS
- Inflammation of the conjunctiva
- Caused by bacterial or viral infection
- Highly contagious

http://www.healthseva.com/images/eye/conjunctivitis.jpg
 Accessory Structures of the Eye
 Lacrimal
apparatus
 Lacrimal gland –
produces lacrimal
fluid
 Lacrimal canals –
drains lacrimal
fluid from eyes
Accessory Structures of the Eye
 Lacrimal sac –
provides
passage of
lacrimal fluid
towards nasal
cavity
Accessory Structures of the Eye
 Nasolacrimal
duct – empties
lacrimal fluid into
the nasal cavity
Function of the Lacrimal Apparatus
 Properties of lacrimal fluid
 Dilute salt solution (tears)
 Contains antibodies (fight antigens- foreign
substance) and lysozyme (enzyme that
destroys bacteria)
 Protects, moistens, and lubricates the
eye
 Empties into the nasal cavity
Extrinsic Eye Muscles
 Muscles attach to the outer surface of
the eye
 Produce eye movements
When Extrinsic Eye Muscles Contract
http://www.esg.montana.edu/esg/kla/ta/eyemusc.jpg
Structure of the Eye
 The wall is
composed of
three tunics
 Fibrous layer –

outside layer
 Vascular layer
– middle layer
 Sensory
layer –
inside
layer
The Fibrous Layer
 Sclera
 White
connective
tissue layer
 Seen
anteriorly as
the “white of
the eye”
 Semi-
transparent
 The Fibrous Layer
 Cornea
 Transparent,
central anterior
portion
 Allows for light to
pass through
(refracts, or bends,
light slightly)
 Repairs itself easily
 The only human
tissue that can be
transplanted
without fear of
rejection
http://www.phys.ufl.edu/~avery/course/3400/vision/eye_photo.jpg
Vascular Layer
 Choroid Layer
 Blood-rich
nutritive tunic
 Pigment
prevents light
from
scattering
(opaque-
blocks light
from getting
in, has
melanin)
Vascular Layer
 Choroid Layer
(con’td)
 Modified interiorly into
two structures
 Cilliary body – smooth
muscle (contracts to
adjust the shape of
the lens)
 Iris – pigmented layer
that gives eye color
(contracts to adjust
the size of the pupil-
regulates entry of light
into the eye)
 Pupil – rounded
opening in the iris
Sensory Tunic (Retina)
 Pigmented
layer
 Outermost,
composed of
pigmented cells
that absorb and
prevent light
from scattering
 Cells act as
phagocytes that
remove
damaged
receptor cells
 Store vitamin A
Sensory Tunic (Retina)
 Neural Layer
 Contains
receptor cells
(photoreceptors)
 Rods
 Cones
 Signals leave
the retina
toward the
brain through
the optic
nerve
Sensory Tunic (Retina)
 Signals pass from photoreceptors via a two-
neuron chain
 Bipolar neurons and Ganglion cells
 VISUAL PIGMENTS
•Rhodopsin- visual purple, in high concentration
in RODS
– Composed of opsin and retinal (a derivative of
vitamin A) proteins
– When light hits the protein it “bleaches”- turns
yellow and then colorless. It straightens out and
breaks down into opsin and retinal.

•Three different other opsins

– photopsin I - with absorption for yellowish-green
– photopsin II - green
– photopsin III - bluish-violet
Neurons of the Retina and Vision
 Rods
 Most are found towards the edges of the
retina
 Allow dim light vision and peripheral vision
(more sensitive to light, do not respond in
bright light)
 Perception is all in gray tones
Neurons of the Retina and Vision
 Cones
 Allow for detailed color vision
 Densest in the center of the retina
 Fovea centralis – area of the retina with
only cones
 Respond best in bright light
 No photoreceptor cells are at the
optic disk, or blind spot
http://blc1.kilgore.cc.tx.us/kcap2/images/retina%20100x%20b%20fireworks.jpg
http://www.yorku.ca/eye/rod-cone.gif http://www.secretbeyondmatter.com/ourbrains/theworldinourbrains_files/11-1.jpg
 Cone Sensitivity
 There are three
types of cones
 Different cones are
sensitive to different
wavelengths
- red- long
- green- medium
- blue- short
 Color blindness is
the result of lack of
one or more cone
type
How do we see colors?
 How do we see colors?
• The brain must compare the input from different
kinds of cone cells—and then make many other
comparisons as well.
• The lightning-fast work of judging a color begins in
the retina, which has three layers of cells.
• Signals from the red and green cones in the first
layer are compared by specialized red-green
"opponent" cells in the second layer.
• Opponent cells compute the balance between red
and green light coming from a particular part of the
visual field.
• Other opponent cells then compare signals from
blue cones with the combined signals from red and
green cones.
 COLORBLINDNESS

- An inherited trait •Comes from a lack of

that is transferred one or more types of
on the sex color receptors.
chromosomes (23rd •Most are green or red
pair)- sex-linked or both and that is due
trait to a lack of red
- Occurs more often receptors.
in males •Another possibility is to
- Can not be cured have the color receptors
or corrected missing entirely, which
would result in black
and white vision.
 COLORBLINDNESS TEST PLATES

http://www.geocities.com/Heartland/8833/coloreye.html
Lens
 Biconvex crystal-
like structure
 Held in place by
a suspensory
ligament (ciliary
zonule) attached
to the ciliary body
 Refracts light
greatly
Internal Eye Chamber Fluids
Refracts
 Aqueous humor
light slightly
 Watery fluid found in
chamber between the lens
and cornea
 Similar to blood plasma
 Helps maintain intraocular
pressure
 Provides nutrients for the
lens and cornea
 Reabsorbed into venous
blood through the canal of
Schlemm
 Internal Eye Chamber Fluids
 Vitreous humor
Refracts
 Gel-like substance behind the lens light slightly
 Keeps the eye from collapsing Holds lens
 Lasts a lifetime and is not replaced and retina in
place

http://faculty.washington.edu/kepeter/119/images/eye3.jpg
 Cataracts
• loss of lens transparency, cause
vision to become hazy and
distorted and can eventually
cause blindness
• Other risk factors
– diabetes mellitus, frequent exposure to
intense sunlight, and heavy smoking
• Current treatment
– special cataract glasses
– surgical removal of the lens and
replacement with a lens implant
 Glaucoma
• If drainage of aqueous humor is blocked, fluid
backs up like a clogged sink causing increased
pressure within the eye compressing the delicate
retina and optic nerve.
• Can lead to blindness
• Treated with
– eyedrops that increase the rate of aqueous humor
drainage
– Laser or surgery
 Lens Accommodation
 Light must be focused to a
point on the retina for optimal
vision
 The eye is set for distance
vision (over 20 ft away)
 20/20 vision- at 20 feet, you
see what a normal eye would
see at 20 feet (20/100- at 20,
normal person would see at
100)
 The lens must change shape to
focus for closer objects
 ability of the eye to focus
specifically for close objects
(<20 ft) is called
accommodation.
Images Formed on the Retina
Real image – the image formed on the retina as
a result of the light-bending activity of the
lens
 MYOPIA (nearsightedness)
• difficulty of seeing objects at a distance
• occurs when the eyeball is slightly longer than
usual from front to back
– causes light rays to focus at a point in front of the
retina, rather than directly on its surface.
• Concave lenses are used to correct the problem.
 HYPEROPIA (farsightedness)
• when light entering
the eye focuses
behind the retina
• Hyperoptic eyes
are shorter than
normal
• Hyperopia is
treated using a
convex lens

http://web.mountain.net/~topeye/images/hyperopia.jp
Visual Pathway
 Optic nerve - Axons
bundled together in the
retina
 Optic chiasma – fibers from
the medial side of each eye
cross over to the opposite
side of the brain
 Optic tracts – fibers from
the lateral side of the eye
on the same side and the
medial side of the opposite
eye
Visual Pathway
 Optic radiation – formed
when optic tract fibers
synapse with the axons in
the thalamus
 Runs to the occipital lobe of the brain
where they synapse with cortical cells
and visual interpretation (seeing)
occurs
 Humans have “binocular vision” –
provides depth perception (3D
vision)
 Visual cortex fuses 2 images into
1 picture
Eye Reflexes
 Internal muscles are controlled by the autonomic
nervous system
 Bright light causes pupils to constrict through action of
radial (iris) and ciliary muscles
 Viewing close objects causes accommodation
 External muscles control eye movement to follow
objects- voluntary, controlled at the frontal eye
field
 Viewing close objects causes convergence
(eyes moving medially)
The EAR: Hearing and
Balance
The Ear
 Houses two senses
 Hearing (interpreted in the auditory cortex
of the temporal lobe)
 Equilibrium (balance) (interpreted in the
cerebellum)
 Receptors are mechanoreceptors
 Different organs house receptors for each
sense
 Anatomy of the Ear
 The ear is divided into three areas
 Outer
(external)
ear
 Middle
ear
 Inner
(internal)
ear
 The External Ear
 Involved in
hearing only
 Structures of the
external ear
 Pinna (auricle) -
collects sound
 External
acoustic meatus
(auditory canal) -
channels
sound inward
The External Auditory Canal

 Narrow chamber in the temporal bone – through

the external auditory meatus
 Lined with skin
 Ceruminous (wax) glands are present – secrete
cerumen (earwax) – traps foreign bodies and
repels insects
 Ends at the tympanic membrane (eardrum) –
separates external from middle ear
The Middle Ear or Tympanic Cavity
 Air-filled
cavity
within the
temporal
bone
 Only
involved in
the sense
of hearing
The Middle Ear or Tympanic Cavity
 Two tubes are associated with the inner ear
 The opening from the auditory canal is covered
by the tympanic membrane (eardrum)
 The auditory (pharyngotympanic) tube connects
the middle ear with the throat (also know as
the eustachian tube)
 Allows for equalizing pressure during yawning or
swallowing
 This tube is otherwise collapsed
 Bones of the Tympanic Cavity
 Three bones
span the
cavity
 Malleus
(hammer)
 Incus (anvil)
 Stapes
(stirrup)
 Bones of the Tympanic Cavity
 Vibrations from
eardrum move
the
malleus→incus
→stirrup →oval
window→hearing
receptors
 These bones
transfer sound to
the inner ear
 Inner Ear or Bony Labyrinth
 a.k.a osseous
(bony) labyrinth-
twisted bony
tubes/chambers w/in
the temporal bone
 Includes sense
organs for hearing
and balance
 Filled with perilymph
 Where membranous
labyrinth is
suspended, contains
endolymph
Inner Ear or Bony Labyrinth

 Cochlea
 Upper chamber - scala
vestibuli
 Middle chamber - scala
media
 Lower chamber - scala

tympani
 Vestibule
 Semicircular
canals
 Inner Ear or Bony Labyrinth

http://www.neurophys.wisc.edu/h&b/auditory/animation/animationmain
.html
 Vibrations of the stapes push and pull on the
membranous oval window, moving the perilymph through
the cochlea. The round window is a membrane at the
opposite end to relieve pressure.
Organ of Corti
 Located within the cochlea
 Receptors = hair cells on the basilar membrane

Scala vestibuli

Scala
Organ of Corti
 Gel-like tectorial membrane is capable of
bending hair cells (endolymph in the
membranous labyrinth of the cochlear duct
flows over it and pushes on the membrane)
Scala vestibuli

Scala
 Organs of Hearing
 Organ of Corti
 Cochlear nerve attached to hair cells
transmits nerve impulses to auditory
cortex on temporal lobe
Scala vestibuli

Scala
 Mechanisms of Hearing
 Vibrations from sound
waves move tectorial
membrane (pass
through the
endolymph fluid
filling the
membranous
labyrinth in the
cochlear duct)
 Hair cells are bent by
the membrane
 Mechanisms of Hearing
 An action potential
starts in the cochlear
nerve
 The signal is
transmitted to the
midbrain (for auditory
reflexes and then
directed to the auditory
cortex of the temporal
lobe)
Mechanisms of Hearing
Mechanisms of Hearing

 Continued stimulation can lead to

adaptation (over stimulation to the
brain makes it stop interpreting
the sounds)
Organs of Equilibrium
 Receptor cells are in two structures
 Vestibule
 Semicircular canals
Organs of Equilibrium
 Equilibrium has two functional parts
 Static equilibrium- in the vestibule
 Dynamic equilibrium- in the semicircular
canals
Static Equilibrium
 Maculae –
receptors in
the vestibule
 Report on
the position
of the head
 Send
information
via the
vestibular
nerve
Static Equilibrium
 Anatomy of the
maculae
 Hair cells are
embedded in
the otolithic
membrane
 Otoliths (tiny
stones) float in
a gel around
the hair cells
Function of Maculae
 Movements cause otoliths to
bend the hair cells (gravity
moves the “rocks” over and
pulls the hairs)
http://neuromedia.neurobio.ucla.edu/campbell/eyeandear/wp_images/177_macula_HP.gif
 Dynamic Equilibrium
 Whole structure is the
ampulla
 Crista ampullaris –
receptors in the
semicircular canals
 Tuft of hair cells
 Cupula (gelatinous cap)
covers the hair cells
 Dynamic Equilibrium
 Action of angular head
movements
 The cupula stimulates the hair
cells
 Movement of endolymph
pushes the
cupula over
and pulls the
hairs
 An impulse is
sent via the
vestibular nerve
to the cerebellum
DYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM STRUCTURES

http://www.faculty.une.edu/com/abell/histo/CristaAmp.jpg
http://neuromedia.neurobio.ucla.edu/campbell/eyeandear/wp_images/177_macula_crista.gif
The Chemical Senses:
Taste and Smell
Chemical Senses – Taste and
Smell
 Both senses use chemoreceptors
 Stimulated by chemicals in solution
 Taste has four types of receptors
 Smell can differentiate a large range of
chemicals
 Both senses complement each other
and respond to many of the same
stimuli
 Olfaction – The Sense of Smell
 Olfactory receptors are in the roof of the nasal
cavity
 Neurons with long cilia
 Chemicals must be dissolved in mucus for
detection
Olfaction – The Sense of Smell
 Impulses are transmitted via the olfactory nerve
 Interpretation of smells is made in the cortex
(olfactory area of temporal lobe)
 Olfaction – The Sense of Smell
 The olfactory pathways are closely tied into the
limbic system (emotional-visceral part of the brain)
 Thus, olfactory impressions are long-lasting and
very much a part of our memories and emotions.
http://asb.aecom.yu.edu/histology/labs/images/slides/A74_OlfactoryEpith_40X.jpg
 The Sense of Taste
 Taste buds
house the
receptor
organs
 Location of
taste buds
 Most are
on the
tongue
 Soft palate
 Cheeks
 The Tongue and Taste
 The tongue is covered
with projections called
papillae
 Filiform papillae – sharp
with no taste buds
 Fungiform papillae –
rounded with taste buds
 Circumvallate papillae –
large papillae with taste
buds
 Taste buds are found on
the sides of papillae
http://neuromedia.neurobio.ucla.edu/campbell/oral_cavity/wp_images/96_fungiform.gif
http://www.esg.montana.edu/esg/kla/ta/vallate.jpg
 Structure of Taste Buds
 Gustatory cells are the receptors
 Have gustatory hairs (long microvilli)
 Hairs are stimulated by chemicals dissolved
in saliva
 Structure of Taste Buds
 Impulses are carried
to the gustatory
complex (parietal
lobe) by several
cranial nerves
because taste buds
are found in different
areas
 Facial nerve
 Glossopharyngeal
nerve
 Vagus nerve
http://www.biosci.ohiou.edu/introbioslab/Bios171/images/lab6/Tastebuds.JPG
Taste Sensations

X
 Sweet receptors
 Sugars
 Saccharine
 Some amino acids
 Sour receptors
 Acids
 Bitter receptors
 Alkaloids
 Salty receptors
 Metal ions
 Umami
 Monosodium glutamate (MSG)
 Meats

http://instruct1.cit.cornell.edu/courses/psych431/student2000/mle6/tonguebig.gif
Developmental Aspects of the
Special Senses

 Formed early in embryonic development

 Eyes are outgrowths of the brain
 All special senses are functional at birth