Some Physical Variables

(possible sensor inputs)

Temperature Pressure Force

Humidity Light Intensity Position
Radioactivity Acceleration Attitude
Magnetic field strength
Electric field strength
Chemical composition
 Some Electrical Signals
(possible transducer outputs)

Resistance
Voltage
Current
Pulse frequency
Pulse width
 SOME COMMON SENSORS
Temperature Sensors

Thermocouple

Each metal has a natural potential level, and when two different
metals touch there is a small potential difference (voltage).
Thermocouples are made by connecting two wires of different
types of metal. A voltage is generated that is a function of the
temperature at the junction, typically very small (10-100μV/°C).
They can be used to measure temperatures up to 2500C. This
principle was discovered by T.J. Seebeck.
Usually a reference junction is used in addition to the measurement
junction.
Reference junction at defined temperature to be placed.
The basic calculations for thermocouples are shown in Figure
below. This calculation provides the measured voltage using a
reference temperature and a constant specific to the device. The
equation can also be rearranged to provide a temperature given a
voltage.
 Types of
Thermocouple
The amount of voltage change per degree of temperature change
of the junction varies with the kinds of metals making up the
junction. The voltage sensitivities of thermocouples made of
various metals are given in Table

Thermal emf for Various Types of Thermocouples

Figure illustrates the emf output versus temperature in degrees for
each of the commonly used thermocouples. Two important facts
emerge from this graph: (i) the sensitivity (slope) of each curve is
different, and (ii) none of the curves has a perfectly linear rate of
change of emf output per degree F.
 Resistive Temperature Detectors (RTDs)

When a metal wire is heated the resistance increases. So, a

temperature can be measured using the resistance of a wire.
Resistive Temperature Detectors (RTDs) normally use a wire or
film of platinum, nickel, copper or nickel-iron alloys. The metals
are wound or wrapped over an insulator, and covered for protection.
The resistances of these alloys are shown in Figure below.
These devices have positive temperature coefficients that cause
resistance to increase linearly with temperature.
These devices have positive temperature coefficients that cause
resistance to increase linearly with temperature. A platinum RTD
might have a resistance of 100 ohms at 0 oC , that will increase by
0.4 ohms/°C. The total resistance of an RTD might double over the
temperature range.
A current must be passed through the RTD to measure the resistance.
(Note: a voltage divider can be used to convert the resistance to a
voltage.) The current through the RTD should be kept to a minimum
to prevent self heating. These devices are more linear
than thermocouples, and can have accuracies of 0.05%. But, they can
be expensive.
 Thermistor

Thermistors are semiconductor (often metal oxide semiconductors)

whose resistance decreases with temperature.
The calculation uses a reference temperature and resistance, with a
constant for the device, to predict the resistance at another
temperature. The expression can be rearranged to calculate the
temperature given the resistance.
Thermistors are small, inexpensive devices. The devices respond
quickly to temperature changes as small as 0.01o C , and they
have a higher resistance. Typical accuracies are 1%, but the
devices are not linear, have a limited temperature/resistance range
-70 to +300 oC .

The circuit can be used to convert the resistance of the thermistor

to a voltage using a Wheatstone bridge and an inverting amplifier.
 IC sensors

Discrete diodes and transistors as well as IC sensors are

becoming more popular. They output a digital reading and can
have accuracies better than 0.01%. But, they have limited
temperature ranges -50 to +150 oC (some devices suitable for
-230 oC ). IC temperature sensors are typically linear, more
than 0.5o C to 2o C.
 Pyrometers
are non-contact temperature measuring devices that use
radiated heat. These are normally used for high
temperature applications, or for production lines where it
is not possible to mount other sensors to the material.
 Pressure Sensors
Can be divided into three types:
1. Deflection type
2. Strain gauge type
3. Piezoelectric type

Deflection type
This sensor uses an elastic material to convert pressure to
displacement e.g. stainless steel, brass. The displacement will be
proportionate to the value of pressure exerted.
The secondary element is the element that will convert the
displacement to electrical signals where the displacement can be
detected through receptivity change, inductance or capacitance.
Resistance Type

Capacitance Type
Strain gauge type
Strain gages measure strain in materials using the change in
resistance of a wire. The wire is glued to the surface of a part, so that
it undergoes the same strain as the part (at the mount point).
Basically, the resistance of the wire is a function of the receptivity,
length, and cross sectional area. After the wire in Figure below has
been deformed it will take on the new dimensions and resistance. If a
force is applied as shown, the wire will become longer, But, the cross
sectional area will decrease. The new length and cross sectional area
can then be used to find a new resistance.
Strain gauges are inexpensive, and can be used to measure a wide
range of stresses with accuracies under 1%. Gages require calibration
before each use.
Widely used to indicate torque, force, pressure, and other variables.
Output is change in resistance due to strain, which can be converted
into voltage.
Piezoelectric type

When a crystal undergoes strain it displaces a small amount of

charge. In other words, when the distance between atoms in the
crystal lattice changes some electrons are forced out or drawn in.
This also changes the capacitance of the crystal. This is known as
the Piezoelectric effect. Figure below shows the relationships for a
crystal undergoing a linear deformation. The charge generated is a
function of the force applied, the strain in the material, and a
constant specific to the material. The change in capacitance is
proportional to the change in the thickness.
When using piezoelectric sensors charge amplifiers are needed to
convert the small amount of charge to a larger voltage
These crystals are used for force sensors, but they are also used for
applications such as microphones and pressure sensors. Applying
an electrical charge can induce strain, allowing them to be used as
actuators, such as audio speakers.
Absolute pressure (A): The pressure measured relative to a
perfect vacuum.
Gauge pressure (B): The pressure measured relative to the
atmospheric pressure.
Atmospheric pressure (D): The pressure exerted by the weight of
the atmosphere on a given point.
Absolute zero pressure (E): Absolute zero pressure is a
theoretically perfect vacuum

Fig. Visualization of pressure types: absolute pressure (A),

gauge pressure (B), vacuum pressure (C), atmospheric
pressure (D), and absolute zero pressure (E).
Displacement Sensors
Angular Displacement
Linear Position

Angular Displacement
Potentiometers
Potentiometers measure the angular position of a shaft using a
variable resistor. A potentiometer is shown in Figure below. The
potentiometer is resistor, normally made with a thin film of
resistive material. A wiper can be moved along the surface of the
resistive film. As the wiper moves toward one end there will be
a change in resistance proportional to the distance moved. If a
voltage is applied across the resistor, the voltage at the wiper
interpolate the voltages at the ends of the resistor.
The potentiometer in the figure is being used as a voltage
divider. As the wiper rotates the output voltage will be
proportional to the angle of rotation.
Potentiometers are popular because they are inexpensive, and don’t
require special signal conditioners. But, they have limited accuracy,
normally in the range of 1% and they are subject to mechanical
wear.
The range of rotation is normally limited to less than 360 degrees.
Some potentiometers can rotate without limits, and the wiper will
jump from one end of the resistor to the other.
Encoders
Encoders use rotating disks with optical windows, as shown in
figure. The encoder contains an optical disk with fine windows
etched into it. Light from emitters passes through the openings in the
disk to detectors. As the encoder shaft is rotated, the light beams are
broken. There are two fundamental types of encoders; absolute and
incremental. An absolute encoder will measure the position of the
shaft for a single rotation. The same shaft angle will always produce
the same reading. The output is normally a binary or grey code
number. An incremental (or relative) encoder will output two pulses
that can be used to determine displacement. Logic circuits or
software is used to determine the direction of rotation, and count
pulses to determine the displacement. The velocity can be
determined by measuring the time between pulses.
Tachometers
Tachometers measure the velocity of a rotating shaft. A common
technique is to mount a magnet to a rotating shaft. When the
magnetic moves past a stationary pick-up coil, current is induced. For
each rotation of the shaft there is a pulse in the coil, as shown in
figure. When the time between the pulses is measured the period for
one rotation can be found, and the frequency calculated. This
technique often requires some signal conditioning circuitry.
velocity of a rotating shaft ; RPM = 60/T, where T is the
period of the sensed input. The constant 60 represents the 60
seconds in a minute to give an equivalent readout of pulses or
revolutions per minute (rpm)

Another common technique uses a simple permanent magnet DC

generator. The generator is hooked to the rotating shaft. The
rotation of a shaft will induce a voltage proportional to the
angular velocity. This technique will introduce some drag into
the system, and is used where efficiency is not an issue.
Both of these techniques are common, and inexpensive.
Linear Position
Potentiometers
potentiometers are also available in linear/sliding form. These are
capable of measuring linear displacement over long distances.
Figure below shows the output voltage when using the
potentiometer as a voltage divider.
Linear/sliding potentiometers have the same general advantages
and disadvantages of rotating potentiometers.
Linear Variable Differential Transformers (LVDT)
Linear Variable Differential Transformers (LVDTs) measure linear
displacements over a limited range. The basic device is shown in
Figure below. It consists of outer coils with an inner moving
magnetic core. High frequency alternating current (AC) is applied
to the center coil. This generates a magnetic field that induces a
current in the two outside coils. The core will pull the magnetic
field towards it, so in the figure more current will be induced in the
left hand coil. The outside coils are wound in opposite directions
so that when the core is in the center the induced currents cancel,
and the signal out is zero (0Vac). The magnitude of the signal out
voltage on either line indicates the position of the core. Near the
center of motion the change in voltage is proportional to the
displacement.
These devices are more accurate than linear potentiometers, and
have less friction. A major disadvantage of these sensors is the
high cost.
Moire Fringes
High precision linear displacement measurements can be made with
Moire Fringes, as shown in figure. Both of the strips are
transparent, with black lines at measured intervals. The spacing of
the lines determines the accuracy of the position measurements.
The stationary strip is offset at an angle so that the strips interfere
to give irregular patterns. As the moving strip travels by a
stationary strip the patterns will move up, or down, depending upon
the speed and direction of motion.
A device to measure the motion of the moire fringes is shown in
figure. A light source is collimated by passing it through a narrow
slit to make it one slit width. This is then passed through the fringes
to be detected by light sensors. At least two light sensors are
needed to detect the bright and dark locations.
These are used in high precision applications over long distances.
Typical applications include Coordinate Measuring Machines
(CMMs).
Accelerometers
Accelerometers measure acceleration using a mass suspended on a
force sensor, as shown in figure. When the sensor accelerates, the
inertial resistance of the mass will cause the force sensor to deflect.
By measuring the deflection the acceleration can be determined. A
base and housing enclose the sensor. A small mounting stud (a
threaded shaft) is used to mount the accelerometer.
The force sensor is often a small piece of piezoelectric material.
 Light
Light Dependant Resistors (LDR)
Light dependant resistors (LDRs) change from high resistance
(>Mohms) in bright light to low resistance (<Kohms) in the dark. The
change in resistance is non-linear, and is also relatively slow (ms).
Other light sensors:
Photodiode – reverse current increases with intensity;
Phototransistor – an “amplified” photodiode;
Photomultiplier tube – most sensitive of all (Requires high voltage
supply).