Computer Organization and

Assembly Language
CSC 325
Introduction to 8086 &
Programming Model
 Outline
 Introduction to MPU System
 History of Microprocessors
 Basic Concepts of Microprocessor Architecture
 Registers and Flags
Introduction
 MICROCOMPUTERS AND MICROPROCESSORS
 There are three major parts of a Computer System.
 Central Processing Unit (CPU): Also simply called as the
microprocessor acts as the brain coordinating all activities within a
computer.
 The Memory: The program instructions and data are primarily stored.
 The Input/output (I/O) Devices: Allow the computer to input
information for processing and then output the results. I/O Devices
are also known as computer peripherals.
 The integrated Circuit (IC) chip containing the CPU is called
the microprocessor and the entire computer including the
microprocessor, memory and I/O is called a
microcomputer.
Introduction
 The CPU is connected to memory and I/O devices
through a strip of wires called a bus. The bus inside
a computer carries information from place to place.
In every computer there are three types of busses:
 Address Bus: The address bus is used to identify the
memory location or I/O device the processor intends to
communicate with
 Data Bus: Data bus is used by the CPU to get data from /
to send data to the memory or the I/O devices.
 Control Bus: Each time the processor outputs an
address it also activates one of the four control bus
signals: Memory Read, Memory Write, I/O Read and I/O
Write.
Introduction
 The address and control bus contains output lines only,
therefore it is unidirectional, but the data bus is
bidirectional.
 There two types of memory used in microcomputers:
 RAM (Random Access Memory/ Read-Write memory) is used by
the computer for the temporary storage of the programs that is
running. Data is lost when the computer is turned off. So known as
volatile memory.
 ROM (Read Only Memory) the information in ROM is permanent
and not lost when the power is turned off. Therefore, it is called
nonvolatile memory.
 Note that RAM is sometimes referred as primary storage,
where magnetic /optical disks are called secondary
storage.
Introduction
Introduction
 Inside the CPU:
 A program stored in the memory provides instructions to the
CPU to perform a specific action. This action can be a
simple addition. It is function of the CPU to fetch the
program instructions from the memory and execute them.
 1. The CPU contains a number of registers to store
information inside the CPU temporarily.
 Registers inside the CPU can be 8-bit, 16-bit, 32-bit or even 64-bit
depending on the CPU.
 2. The CPU also contains Arithmetic and Logic Unit
(ALU). The ALU performs arithmetic (add, subtract, multiply,
divide) and logic (AND, OR, NOT) functions.
Introduction
 3. The CPU contains a program counter also known as the
Instruction Pointer to point the address of the next
instruction to be executed.
 4. Instruction Decoder is a kind of dictionary which is used
to interpret the meaning of the instruction fetched into the
CPU. Appropriate control signals are generated according to
the meaning of the instruction.
Introduction
Introduction
I/O Device 0 Data
Data
Code
Memory
Address
CPU
I/O Device 1 Data

Address
Data
I/O Device N Data
Memory
Data
History
Pinout of 8086 & 8088
Architecture

Execution Unit (EU) Bus Interface Unit (BIU)

EU executes instructions that have BIU fetches instructions, reads data

already been fetched by the BIU. from memory and I/O ports, writes
data to memory and I/ O ports.
BIU and EU functions separately.
 Bus Interface Unit
Architecture (BIU)
Dedicated Adder to
generate 20 bit address

Four 16-bit segment

registers

Code Segment (CS)

Data Segment (DS)
Stack Segment (SS)
Extra Segment (ES)

Segment Registers >>

Microprocessor Architecture
Microprocessor
8-bits
Architecture
8-bits
15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
AH AL
BH BL
CH CL
DH DL
SP (Segment Pointer)
BP (Base Pointer)
DI (Destination Index)
SI (Source Index)
IP (Instruction Pointer)
FLAGS
CS (Code Segment)
DS (Data Segment)
ES (Extra Segment)
SS (Stack Segment)
FS
GS
 Bus Interface Unit
Architecture (BIU)

Segment Data Segment Register

Registers
16-bit

Points to the current data segment; operands for most

instructions are fetched from this segment.

The 16-bit contents of the Source Index (SI) or Destination

Index (DI) or a 16-bit displacement are used as offset for
computing the 20-bit physical address.
 Bus Interface Unit
Architecture (BIU)

Segment Stack Segment Register

Registers
16-bit

Points to the current stack.

The 20-bit physical stack address is calculated from the

Stack Segment (SS) and the Stack Pointer (SP) for stack
instructions such as PUSH and POP.

In based addressing mode, the 20-bit physical stack

address is calculated from the Stack segment (SS) and the
Base Pointer (BP).
 Bus Interface Unit
Architecture (BIU)

Segment Extra Segment Register

Registers
16-bit

Points to the extra segment in which data (in excess of

64K pointed to by the DS) is stored.

String instructions use the ES and DI to determine the 20-

bit physical address for the destination.
 Bus Interface Unit
Architecture (BIU)

Segment Instruction Pointer

Registers
16-bit

Always points to the next instruction to be executed

within the currently executing code segment.

So, this register contains the 16-bit offset address

pointing to the next instruction code within the 64Kb of
the code segment area.

Its content is automatically incremented as the execution

of the next instruction takes place.
Multipurpose Registers
 AX (accumulator) 16-bit register
 The accumulator is used for instructions such as
multiplication, division, and some of the adjustment
instructions. For these instructions, the accumulator
has a special purpose, but is generally considered to
be a multipurpose register.
 BX (base index) register
 Sometimes holds the offset address of a location in
the memory system in all versions of the
microprocessor.
 CX, CH, or CL, is a (count) register
 General-purpose register that also holds the count for
various instructions.
Multipurpose Registers
 CX, CH, or CL, is a (count) register
 General-purpose register that also holds the count for
various instructions.
 DX , DH, or DL, is a (data) register
 It holds a part of the result from a multiplication or
part of the dividend before a division.
 DI (destination index)
 It often addresses string destination data for the string
instructions.
 SI (source index)
 The source index register often addresses source
string data for the string instructions.
Special-Purpose Registers.
 The special-purpose registers include IP, SP,
FLAGS and the segment registers include CS,
DS, ES, SS, FS, and GS.
 IP (instruction pointer)
 It addresses the next instruction in a section of
memory defined as a code segment
 SP (stack pointer)
 The stack memory stores data through this pointer.
 Execution Unit (EU)
Architecture
EU Accumulator Register (AX)
Registers
Consists of two 8-bit registers AL and AH, which can be
combined together and used as a 16-bit register AX.

AL in this case contains the low order byte of the word,

and AH contains the high-order byte.

The I/O instructions use the AX or AL for inputting /

outputting 16 or 8 bit data to or from an I/O port.

Multiplication and Division instructions also use the AX or

AL.
 Execution Unit (EU)
Architecture
EU Base Register (BX)
Registers
Consists of two 8-bit registers BL and BH, which can be
combined together and used as a 16-bit register BX.

BL in this case contains the low-order byte of the word,

and BH contains the high-order byte.

This is the only general purpose register whose contents

can be used for addressing the 8086 memory.

All memory references utilizing this register content for

addressing use DS as the default segment register.
 8086
Execution Unit (EU)
Architecture
Microprocessor

EU Counter Register (CX)

Registers
Consists of two 8-bit registers CL and CH, which can be
combined together and used as a 16-bit register CX.

When combined, CL register contains the low order byte

of the word, and CH contains the high-order byte.

Instructions such as SHIFT, ROTATE and LOOP use the

contents of CX as a counter.

Example:

The instruction LOOP START automatically decrements

CX by 1 without affecting flags and will check if [CX] =
0.

If it is zero, 8086 executes the next instruction;

otherwise the 8086 branches to the label START.
 Execution Unit (EU)
Architecture
EU
Registers
 Execution Unit (EU)
Architecture
EU Stack Pointer (SP) and Base Pointer
Registers (BP)

SP and BP are used to access data in the stack segment.

SP is used as an offset from the current SS during

execution of instructions that involve the stack segment
in the external memory.

SP contents are automatically updated (incremented/

decremented) due to execution of a POP or PUSH
instruction.

BP contains an offset address in the current SS, which is

used by instructions utilizing the based addressing mode.
 Execution Unit (EU)
Architecture
EU Source Index (SI) and Destination
Registers Index (DI)

Used in indexed addressing.

Instructions that process data strings use the SI and DI

registers together with DS and ES respectively in order to
distinguish between the source and destination
addresses.
 Execution Unit (EU)
Architecture
EU Source Index (SI) and Destination
Registers Index (DI)

Used in indexed addressing.

Instructions that process data strings use the SI and DI

registers together with DS and ES respectively in order to
distinguish between the source and destination
addresses.
 Flags
 It indicate the condition of the microprocessor
and control its operation.
 Flags
 It indicate the condition of the microprocessor
and control its operation.
 C (carry)
 Carry holds the carry after addition or the borrow after
subtraction. The carry flag also indicates error
conditions, as dictated by some programs and
procedures.
 P (parity)
 Parity is a logic 0 for odd parity and a logic 1 for even
parity. Parity is the count of ones in a number
expressed as even or odd.
 Flags
 A (auxiliary carry)
 The auxiliary carry holds the carry (half-carry) after
addition or the borrow after subtraction between bit
positions 3 and 4 of the result
 Z (zero)
 The zero flag shows that the result of an arithmetic or
logic operation is zero.
 S (sign)
 The sign flag holds the arithmetic sign of the result
after an arithmetic or logic instruction executes.

 Flags
 T (trap)
 The trap flag enables trapping through an on-chip
debugging feature.
 I (interrupt)
 The interrupt flag controls the operation of the INTR
(interrupt request) input pin.
 D (direction)
 The direction flag selects either the increment or
decrement mode for the DI and/or SI registers during
string instructions.
 Flags
 (overflow)
 Overflows occur when signed numbers are added or
subtracted. An overflow indicates that the result has
exceeded the capacity of the machine
 Execution Unit (EU)
Architecture Auxiliary Carry Flag
Carry Flag

Flag Register This is set, if there is a carry from the

lowest nibble, i.e, bit three during This flag is set, when there is
addition, or borrow for the lowest a carry out of MSB in case of
nibble, i.e, bit three, during addition or a borrow in case of
subtraction. subtraction.

Sign Flag Zero Flag Parity Flag

This flag is set, when the This flag is set, if the result of This flag is set to 1, if the lower
result of any computation the computation or comparison byte of the result contains even
is negative performed by an instruction is number of 1’s ; for odd number
zero of 1’s set to zero.

15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

OF DF IF TF SF ZF AF PF CF

Tarp Flag
Over flow Flag If this flag is set, the processor
This flag is set, if an overflow occurs, i.e, if the result of a signed
enters the single step execution
operation is large enough to accommodate in a destination
mode by generating internal
register. The result is of more than 7-bits in size in case of 8-bit
signed operation and more than 15-bits in size in case of 16-bit interrupts after the execution of
sign operations, then the overflow will be set. each instruction

Direction Flag Interrupt Flag

This is used by string manipulation instructions. If this flag bit
is ‘0’, the string is processed beginning from the lowest Causes the 8086 to recognize
address to the highest address, i.e., auto incrementing mode. external mask interrupts; clearing IF
Otherwise, the string is processed from the highest address disables these interrupts.
towards the lowest address, i.e., auto incrementing mode.
 Segment Register
 Additional registers, called segment registers,
generate memory addresses when combined
with other registers in the microprocessor.
 CS (code)
 The code segment is a section of memory that holds
the code (programs and procedures) used by the
microprocessor.
 DS (data)
 The data segment is a section of memory that
contains most data used by a program.
 Segment Register
 ES (extra)
 The extra segment is an additional data segment
that is used by some of the string instructions to
hold destination data.
 SS (stack)
 The stack segment defines the area of memory
used for the stack.
 Architecture
8086 registers
categorized 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

into 4 groups OF DF IF TF SF ZF AF PF CF

Sl.No. Type Register width Name of register

1 General purpose register 16 bit AX, BX, CX, DX

8 bit AL, AH, BL, BH, CL, CH, DL, DH

2 Pointer register 16 bit SP, BP

3 Index register 16 bit SI, DI

4 Instruction Pointer 16 bit IP

5 Segment register 16 bit CS, DS, SS, ES

6 Flag (PSW) 16 bit Flag register

Architecture
Registers and Special Functions

Register Name of the Register Special Function

AX 16-bit Accumulator Stores the 16-bit results of arithmetic and logic operations

AL 8-bit Accumulator Stores the 8-bit results of arithmetic and logic operations

BX Base register Used to hold base value in base addressing mode to

access memory data

CX Count Register Used to hold the count value in SHIFT, ROTATE and LOOP
instructions

DX Data Register Used to hold data for multiplication and division operations

SP Stack Pointer Used to hold the offset address of top stack memory

BP Base Pointer Used to hold the base value in base addressing using SS
register to access data from stack memory

SI Source Index Used to hold index value of source operand (data) for string
instructions

DI Data Index Used to hold the index value of destination operand (data)
for string operations