LO2

The ATOM
History and
Models of the
Atom
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 Democritus

• Believed universe made of invisible units called atoms

• Named them Atoms
• 400 BC
• Aristotle said “He’s a quack!!!”
• Took 2000 yrs to be proved right!
 Dalton’s Atomic Theory

John Dalton
(1766 – 1844)
Wrote the first atomic theory

The “Billiard Ball”

Model
• proposed by John Dalton in 1804

• this theory proposed that matter was composed of small, spherical particles

• but evidence was later gathered that matter was composed of even smaller bits
 New Evidence
• during the 1900s evidence was discovered regarding
charges:
• atoms have positive (Rutherford’s contribution) and
negative (Thomson’s contribution) parts
• charges interact:

• as a result, revisions to Dalton’s model had to be made

 Thomson: “Plum Pudding” or
“Chocolate Chip Cookie”
Model
• using available data on the atom, J.J. Thomson came up
with the idea of having charges embedded with Dalton’s
Billiard Balls
• Also used cathode ray experiment to discover the
existence of the electron

positive negative
(evenly distributed)
“chocolate”
“dough”
part

note: this model kept Dalton’s key ideas intact

 Discovery of the Electron
In 1897, J.J. Thomson used a cathode ray
tube to deduce the presence of a negatively
charged particle: the electron
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 Conclusions from the Study of the Electron:

A. Cathode rays have identical properties regardless of the element used

to produce them. All elements must contain identically charged electrons.
B. Atoms are neutral, so there must be positive particles in the atom to
balance the negative charge of the electrons
C. Electrons have so little mass that atoms must contain other particles
that account for most of the mass
 Mass of the Electron
Robert Millikan

Mass of the
electron is
9.11 x 10-28 g

The oil drop apparatus

1916 – Robert Millikan determines the mass of the electron: 1/1840 the
mass of a hydrogen atom; has one unit of negative charge
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 Nuclear Model

• Ernest Rutherford discovered a huge flaw in the previous

concept of the atom during his now famous gold foil

experiment
 Rutherford
• Discovered the Nucleus and the Positive
Protons

• Surmised atoms are made of mostly empty

space

• Didn’t know about the Neutrons

• Famous Gold Foil Experiment

• Click on me:
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her14.swf
 Gold Foil Experiment

• Particles shot through thin sheet of gold

• Most shots went straight through
• A small amount were deflected
• Hence… The atoms must be made of mostly empty space with a
small dense nucleus
Further explanation of Nuclear Model
• If previous models were correct alpha particles would have
passed straight through the the gold
 Rutherford’s problem:
In the following pictures, there is a target hidden by a
cloud. To figure out the shape of the target, we shot
some beams into the cloud and recorded where the
beams came out. Can you figure out the shape of the
target?

Target Target
#1 #2
 The Answers:

Target #1 Target #2
Nuclear Model
• Rutherford found that most (99%) of the alpha particles that he shot at the gold went straight
through
• From these experiments Rutherford concluded that the atom had a dense positive core, with the
rest composed of mostly empty space with the occasional negatively charged electron

-
-
-
+

--
note: this model completely changed the definition of atom
 Rutherford’s Findings

* Most of the particles passed right through

* A few particles were deflected
* VERY FEW were greatly deflected

“Like howitzer shells bouncing

off of tissue paper!”
Conclusions:
#1 The nucleus is small
#2 The nucleus is dense
#3 The nucleus is positively
charged
 James Chadwick
• Partner: Irene Curie
• Discovered the NEUTRON in 1932!!
• Came about after the discovery of protons and
electrons
• Performed an experiment with the element Beryllium
 James Chadwick
• Experiment: He and Irene bombarded Beryllium
with alpha particles.
• The outcome??? A great penetrating power was
produced that was made up of particles that were not
deflected by neither electric nor magnetic fields.
James Chadwick
• His conclusion??? He concluded that since these particles
carried no electric charge, then they must be NEUTRAL!!
• Thus, proving the existence of NEUTRONS!!!!
• This accounted for the rest of the mass in the atom’s nucleus!!!
 Neils Bohr
• Discovery: Electrons reside on specific energy levels
NOT between them!!
• Experiment: Used line-emission spectra to show
electrons can exist in many different energy levels.
 Neils Bohr
• Things he found out through his experiment:
• Electrons can move from a low energy state (ground level) to a higher
energy level (excited state) by absorbing energy!!!

• Electrons can also “fall” back from a higher energy level to a lower
energy level by releasing energy!!
 Neils Bohr
• When an electron is in the “excited state” and jumps to the “ground
state” (to become more stable), it releases excess energy in the form
of light!!!

• This light has specific colors and wavelengths on a line spectrum.

• Each different atom emits a specific color associated with a certain

wavelength when the electron “falls” back to the ground state.
Niels Bohr
• Discovered that electrons exist in several distinct layers or levels
• “Jimmy Neutron Model”
• Travel around nucleus like planets travel around sun
• Electrons Orbit
• Electrons can jump between levels with energy being added/released
Bohr Model
• Niels Bohr proposed that electrons revolve around
the central positive nucleus (like planets in the
solar system)

negative electrons

3 positive protons
Bohr Model
• Bohr also suggested that the electrons can only revolve
in certain orbits, or at certain energy levels (ie, the
energy levels are quantized)

no energy level in between steps

Neils Bohr
• Pictures associated with Bohr!!
Heisenberg and Schrodinger
• Found that Electrons live in fuzzy regions or “clouds” not distinct orbits
• Improved on Bohr’s findings
• Electron location can not be predicted
• Quantum Mechanical Model
Quantum Mechanical Model
• the current understanding of the atom is based on
Quantum Mechanics

• this model sees the electrons not as individual particles,

but as behaving like a cloud - the electron can be
“anywhere” in a certain energy level

• Remember back to CPE with electrons behaving like bees

in a beehive
Quantum Mechanical Model

electrons can be found

anywhere in these “shells”

note: the electrons

are still quantized
no electrons can
be found here
• most things we do can be explained using Dalton’s
and/or Bohr’s model
• the Quantum Mechanical model, although most
accurate, is complex even at a university level
(conceptually and mathematically)
• Click on me or copy and paste into browser:
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• to learn more about quarks & hadrons (its located

near the bottom of the page)
Wave Model
The Wave Model
• Today’s atomic model is based on
the principles of wave mechanics.
• According to the theory of wave
mechanics, electrons do not move
about an atom in a definite path,
like the planets around the sun.
The Wave Model
• In fact, it is impossible to determine the exact location
of an electron. The probable location of an electron is
based on how much energy the electron has.
• According to the modern atomic model, at atom has a
small positively charged nucleus surrounded by a
large region in which there are enough electrons to
make an atom neutral.
Electron Cloud:
• A space in which electrons are likely to
be found.
• Electrons whirl about the nucleus
billions of times in one second
• They are not moving around in random
patterns.
• Location of electrons depends upon
how much energy the electron has.
Electron Cloud:

• Depending on their energy they are locked into a certain area in the
cloud.
• Electrons with the lowest energy are found in the energy level
closest to the nucleus
• Electrons with the highest energy are found in the outermost energy
levels, farther from the nucleus.
 Indivisible Electron Nucleus Orbit Electron
Cloud
Greek X
Dalton X
Thomson X
Rutherford X X
Bohr X X X
Wave X X X
Subatomic particles
Atoms are composed of three subatomic particles: protons,
neutrons and electrons. The two important properties of
these particles are mass and charge:
Relative Relative
Particle
mass charge
proton 1 +1
neutron 1 0
electron 1/1840 -1

The mass of electrons is negligible when compared to the

mass of protons and neutrons, so their mass is not included
when calculating the mass of the atom.

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Atomic number and mass number
The number of protons in an atom is known as the
atomic number or proton number and is represented
by the symbol Z ( Zahl in german i.e. number )

The mass number of an atom is the number of protons

plus the number of neutrons, and is represented by the
symbol A ( Atnomicwegich i.e atomic weight )

When an atom is mass

represented by its number (A)
symbol, the mass
number, and atomic
sometimes the atomic number (Z)
number, are shown.

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Models of atoms
At GCSE level, the model of the
atom states that a nucleus is
surrounded by shells of electrons.
Each shell holds a different
maximum number of electrons:

 1st shell = 2 electrons

 2nd shell = 8 electrons
 3rd shell = 8 electrons.

At A-level, this model is slightly different. Instead of electrons

being arranged in shells that are a different distance from the
nucleus, they are arranged in energy levels.

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The Bohr model of the atom
In 1900, Max Planck
(right) developed his
‘Quantum theory’, which
states that energy exists
in fixed amounts called
quanta.

In 1913, Niels Bohr (left)

applied Plank’s theory to
electrons. He proposed that electrons could only exist in
fixed energy levels.

The main energy levels are called principal energy levels

and are given a number called the principal quantum
number (n) with the lowest in energy being 1.

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Isotopes and Relative
Atomic Mass

Learning Objectives:
Do I know…
•about the relative atomic mass and
isotopes?
•how to calculate relative atomic mass
from percentage abundance?

Stick in the Key Words sheet you have

been given.
Starter
Calculate the number of protons and neutrons
in the nucleus of the following atoms.

24 91 9 56

Mg
12 40
Zr 4
Be Fe
26

108 48 14 27

47
Ag 22
Ti 7
N 13
Al
Extra Challenge: Use your periodic table to
find out the names of these elements.
How did you do?
1. Mg = 12 protons, 12 neutrons (Magnesium)
2. Zr = 40 protons, 51 neutrons (Zirconium)
3. Be = 4 protons, 5 neutrons (Beryllium)
4. Fe = 26 protons, 30 neutrons (Iron)
5. Ag = 47 protons, 61 neutrons (Silver)
6. Ti = 22 protons, 26 neutrons (Titanium)
7. N = 7 protons, 7 neutrons (Nitrogen)
8. Al = 13 protons, 14 neutrons (Aluminium)
 Isotopes: Carbon
• Natural samples of elements are often a
mixture of isotopes. About 1% of natural
carbon is carbon-13.
13
12

6 C 99% 1%
6 C

6 6
Protons
6 Electrons 6
6 Neutrons 7
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 Isotopes: Hydrogen
• Hydrogen exists as 3 isotopes although
Hydrogen-1 makes up the vast majority of the
naturally occurring element.
1 2
H
3
1 1 H 1 H

Protons Protons Protons

Electrons Electrons Electrons
Neutrons Neutrons Neutrons

Hydrogen (Deuterium) (Tritium)

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 Isotopes: Chlorine
• About 75% of natural chlorine is 35Cl the rest is
37
Cl. 35 37
17 Cl 75% 25%
Cl
17

Protons 17
Electrons 17 Protons 17
Neutrons 18 Electrons 17
Neutrons 20
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 Activity

Isotopes of Oxygen
• Almost all of natural oxygen is 16O but 16
O
about 0.2% is 18O. 8

• Produce a Table showing the particles

in each isotope.
Oxygen-16 Oxygen-18

Protons 8 Protons 8
Electrons Electrons
8 8
Neutrons Neutrons
8 10

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What are isotopes?
Isotopes are atoms of the same element that contain
different numbers of neutrons.

mass number
is different

atomic number
is the same
carbon-12 carbon-13

The reactivity of different isotopes of an element is identical

because they have the same number of electrons.
The different masses of the atoms means that physical
properties of isotopes are slightly different.

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Isotopes of chlorine
About 75% of naturally-occurring chlorine is chlorine-35 (35Cl)
and 25% is chlorine-37 (37Cl).

17 protons 17 protons
18 neutrons 20 neutrons
17 electrons 17 electrons

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Isotopes of carbon
There is also more than one isotope of carbon:

Isotope Protons Neutrons

12
C 6 6
13
C 6 7
14
C 6 8

All isotopes of carbon have 6 protons and so have 6

electrons.
Because chemical reactivity depends on the number of
electrons the reactivity of the isotopes of carbon is identical.

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Two kinds of carbon atoms?
Almost all the carbon atoms found in living
things, and in the rocks, seas and atmosphere
of our planet have the nuclear symbol
12
.
C
This is called Carbon-12.
6

How many neutrons does Carbon-12 have in its

nucleus?
Two kinds of carbon atoms?
A tiny fraction of the carbon atoms on Earth
14

have the nuclear symbol . This

6 C is known as
Carbon-14.

How many neutrons does Carbon-14 have in its

nucleus?
What are the mass numbers of Carbon-12, and
Carbon-14?
What about the atomic numbers?
Two kinds of carbon atoms?
The two different forms of the carbon atoms
are called isotopes of the element carbon.
There is also a third isotope of carbon with a
mass number of 13.
Write down the nuclear symbol for Carbon-13.
Carbon Dating
Carbon-14 is Ötzi the ‘Iceman’ was found in a
radioactive. This glacier in the Alps.
means that when a
living organism dies,
the Carbon-14 atoms
it contains gradually
decay into more stable
carbon atoms.
Scientists can use this
fact to find the age of
the remains of long- Archaeologists used the
dead organisms. This amount of Carbon-14
is called carbon remaining in his body to
calculate that he died about
dating.
5,000 years ago.
 Atomic Number (Proton Number)

This is the number of Protons found in the nucleus of an

atom. All atoms of a particular element have the same
number of protons in their nuclei.

Relative Atomic Mass (Ar)

This is the mass of an atom compared to all the other
atoms in the period table. It is a ratio and has no unit

Mass Number

This is the relative mass of atoms. It is calculated from

adding the number of protons (Ar = 1) to the number of
neutrons (Ar = 1). Electrons are regarded as having a
mass of zero.
 Isoelectronic species

●
Atoms/ions with the same electronic
configuration

●
Will have the same number of electrons, but:
●
different numbers of protons
●
different charges

K+1, Ar, and Cl-1 are all isoelectronic

 Isotopes and Relative Atomic
Mass
• Many natural elements are a mixture of
isotopes.
• This means that when we react atoms of an
element we are using a mixture of atoms with
different mass numbers.
• The relative atomic mass given in the
periodic table takes account of this.
E.g.. For 100 atoms of chlorine:
Mass of 75 atoms of Chlorine 35: 75 x 35 =2625
Mass of 25 atoms of Chlorine 37: 25 x 37 =925
Total = 3550
Average (divide by 100) = 35.5

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 Activity

Relative Atomic Mass

• Bromine contains 50.5% bromine-79 and
49.5% bromine-81.
• Calculate the relative atomic mass of natural
bromine showing your working.

Egg. For 100 atoms of bromine:

Mass of 50.5 atoms of bromine 79: 50.5 x 79 =3989.5
Mass of 49.5 atoms of bromine 81: 49.5 x 81 =4009.5
Total = 7999
Average (divide by 100) = 80 (3 s.f.)

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Counting atoms and molecules
When conducting a chemical reaction, it is often important
to mix reactants in the correct proportions. This prevents
contamination of the products by wasted reactants.

However, atoms are very

small and impossible to count
out. In order to estimate the
number of atoms in a sample
of an element, it is necessary
to find their mass.

The mass of an atom is

quantified in terms of
relative atomic mass.

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Relative atomic mass
The relative atomic mass (Ar) of an element is the mass of
one of its atoms relative to 1/12 the mass of one atom of
carbon-12.
relative atomic mass average mass of an atom × 12
=
(Ar) mass of one atom of carbon-12

Most elements have more

than one isotope. The Ar of
the element is the average
mass of the isotopes, taking
into account the abundance of
each isotope. This is why the
Ar of an element is frequently
not a whole number.

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Relative molecular mass
The relative molecular mass (Mr) of a covalent substance
is the mass of one molecule relative to 1/12 the mass of
one atom of carbon-12.

Mr can be calculated by adding together the masses of

each of the atoms in a molecule.

Example: what is the Mr of H2SO4?

1. Count number of atoms (2 × H) + (1 × S) + (4 × O)
2. Substitute the Ar values (2 × 1.0) + (1 × 32.1) +
(4 × 16.0)
3. Add the values together 2.0 + 32.1 + 64.0 = 98.1

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Relative formula mass
The equivalent of relative molecular mass for an ionic
substance is the relative formula mass.
This is the mass of a formula unit relative to 1/12 the mass
of one atom of carbon-12. It is calculated in the same way
as relative molecular mass, and is represented by the same
symbol, Mr.

Example: what is the Mr of CaCl2?

1. Count number of atoms (1 × Ca) + (2 × Cl)
2. Substitute the Ar values (1 × 40.1) + (2 × 35.5)
3. Add the values together 40.1 + 71.0 = 111.1

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Using mass spectra to calculate Ar
The mass spectrum of an element indicates the mass and
abundance of each isotope present. For example, the mass
spectrum of boron indicates two isotopes are present:
100

abundance (%)
80
11
B (80%)

60
40 10
B (20%)
20
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
m/z
How can this be used to calculate the Ar of boron?

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Calculating Ar
Most elements have more than one isotope. The relative
atomic mass of the element is the average mass of the
isotopes taking into account the abundance of each isotope.

Example: what is the Ar of boron?

In a sample of boron, 20% of the atoms are 10Br and 80%
are 11Br.
If there are 100 atoms, then 20 atoms would be 10Br and
80 atoms would be 11Br.
The relative atomic mass is calculated as follows:
Ar of Br = (20 × 10) + (80 × 11)
100
Ar of Br = 10.8

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Calculating Ar of magnesium
In a sample of magnesium, 79.0% of the magnesium
atoms are 24Mg, 10.0% are 25Mg and 11.0% are 26Mg.

Example: What is the Ar of magnesium?

1. Calculate mass × abundance 24 × 79.0
of each isotope 25 × 10.0
26 × 11.0

2. Add these values, (1896 + 250 + 286) / 100

and divide by 100

Ar of Mg = 24.3

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 Relative Atomic Mass 1
• The deflection in the mass spectrometer varies
with the mass of the atom.
• However, this does not tell us the mass in
grams.
• What it tells us is the relative masses of atoms
– or relative atomic mass (RAM)
• The element carbon is the atom against which
the mass of all other atoms are compared.
Carbon is given a RAM value of 12.

C atomic mass = 12
Relative

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 Relative Atomic Mass 2
• The lightest atom is hydrogen. It has one
twelfth the mass of carbon and so has a RAM
of 1.
• Magnesium is twice as heavy as carbon. It
has a RAM of 24.
C C C
H H
HH H H C
C C
C
H H H C Mg C
H H
H HH
Mg C
HH H H
H H H
Mg
Mg
H HH

1 x 12 = 12 x 1 24 x 1 = 12 x 2

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 Activity
Relative Atomic Mass
• The Table shows the mass of various atoms
relative to carbon.
• Calculate their relative atomic mass.

Element Symbol Times as heavy as carbon R.A.M

Helium He one third 4
Beryllium Be three quarters 9
Molybdenum Mo eight 96
Krypton Kr seven 84
Oxygen O one and one third 16
Silver Ag nine 108
Calcium Ca three and one third 40

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 Calculating relative
atomic mass 10
B , which accounts
Boron has two isotopes
5
11
B and ,
for 20% of all Boron atoms,
5

which accounts for the other 80%. What

is the relative atomic mass of Boron?
Step 1: Multiply the mass number of
each isotope by its % abundance.
10 x 20 = 200, and 11 x 80 =
880.
Step 2: Add these values together.
200 + 880 = 1080.
Step 3: Finally, divide by 100 to get the
average.
75% of the Chlorine in existence
is Cl35

25% of the Chlorine in existence

is Cl37

This means that the atomic mass shown in the periodic

table is an average of the masses of both isotopes taking
into account their relative proportions.

(75 x 35) + (25 x 37) =

35.5
100
Calculating relative atomic mass
The element thallium has two isotopes:
203

, which
Th has an abundance of 30%, and
81
205
, which
Th has an abundance of 70%.
81

Use this information to calculate the relative

atomic mass of thallium.
Calculating relative atomic mass
Thallium-203. 203 x 30 = 6090
Thallium-205. 205 x 70 = 14350

6090 + 14350 = 20440

20440 ÷ 100 = 204.4

Test Yourself
1. Look at the nuclear symbols for four atoms,
J, X, Z and A.
14 16 15 14

7
J 8
X 7
Z 6
A
a) How many of these atoms have 8 neutrons
in their nucleus?
b) Which two of these atoms are isotopes of
each other?
Home Learning
Calculate the relative atomic masses of the
elements using the information printed on
your sheets.
‘Weighing’ atoms
Mass spectrometry is an accurate instrumental technique
used to determine the relative isotopic mass (mass of each
individual isotope relative to carbon-12) and the relative
abundance for each isotope. From this, the relative atomic
mass of the element can be calculated.

Some uses of mass

spectrometry include:

 carbon-14 dating
 detecting illegal drugs
 forensic science
 space exploration.

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 “Weighing” atoms: The mass spectrometer
The more mass the atom has, the more nearly it travels
in a straight line. The deflected
ions are
detected on a
+
screen or film.
Atoms are given
a + charge +
+
+ +
+
+
+ + ++ + + + + + +

These charged The magnet deflects this

atoms (ions) are ion. The lighter the ion
accelerated past a the more it is deflected
magnet

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 Consists of
Consists of
Molecules
.Atoms Matter

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 Atom consists of

Electrons
Negatively charged
Nucleus
. particles
A nucleus located
Revolve around
at the center of the
nucleus in
atom
imaginary places
: It consists of
called Energy
Protons Neutron
† ± .levels
) As in solar system(

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 How Are the Particles Arranged?
The Nucleus
• Protons, neutrons and electrons are a dense core
NOT evenly distributed in atoms. of protons and
• The protons and neutrons exist in a neutrons
containing
dense core called the nucleus. nearly all the
• Around the outside are very thinly mass of the
spread electrons. atom
• These electrons exist in layers
called shells.
‘Shells’ of electrons
electrons are really very very tiny
so the atom is mostly empty
space.

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 The Atom: Check It Out!

• Draw a labelled diagram

of the atom showing the
nucleus and labelling
protons, neutrons and
electrons

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 Properties of Sub-atomic
Particles
• There are two properties of sub-atomic
particles that are especially important:
Mass
Electrical charge

Particle Charge Relative Mass

Protons +1 1
Neutrons 0 1
Electrons -1 0.0005
Element atoms contain equal numbers of protons and electrons and so
have no overall charge

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 Atomic Number
• The atom of any particular element always
contains the same number of protons. E.g.
Hydrogen atoms always contain 1 proton
Carbon atoms always contain 6 protons
Magnesium atoms always contain 12 protons 12
• The number of protons in an atom is known C
6
as its atomic number.
• It is the smaller of two numbers shown in
most periodic tables

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 Activity

How Many Protons?

• Here is some data about elements
taken from the Periodic Table.
• What is the atomic number of the
elements?

23 56 119 19 27
Na Fe Sn F Al
11 26 50 9 13

11 26 50 9 13

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 How Many Protons?
• Note that any element has a definite and
fixed number of protons.
• If we change the number of protons in an
atom then this changes that atom into a
different element.
• Changes in the number of particles in the
nucleus (protons or neutrons) is very rare.
It only takes place in nuclear processes
such as radioactive decay, nuclear bombs
or nuclear reactors.

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 Mass Number
• The mass of each atom results almost entirely
from the number of protons and neutrons that
are present. (Remember that electrons have a
relatively tiny mass).
• The sum of the number of protons and
neutrons in an atom is the mass number.

Atom Protons Neutrons Mass Number

Hydrogen 1 0 1
Lithium 3 4 7
Aluminium 13 14 27

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 Activity

Mass Number
• Calculate the mass number of the atoms
shown.

MASS NUMBER = Number of protons + number of neutrons

Atom Protons Neutrons Mass Number

Helium 2 2 4
Copper 29 35 64
Cobalt 27 32 59
Iodine 53 74 127
Germanium 32 41 73

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 Activity

How Many Neutrons

• Calculate the number of neutrons in
these atoms.
Number of Neutrons = mass number - atomic number

Atom Mass Atomic Number of

Number Number Neutrons
Helium 4 2
2
Fluorine 19 9
10
Strontium 88 38
50
Zirconium 91 40
51
Uranium 238 92
146
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 How Many Neutrons 2
• It is not strictly true to say that elements
consist of one type of atom.
• Whilst atoms of a given element always
have the same number of protons, they
may have different numbers of neutrons.
• Atoms that differ in this way are called
isotopes.
Remember: The number of
protons defines
the element

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 How Many Neutrons 3
• Isotopes are virtually identical in their chemical
reactions. (There may be slight differences in
speeds of reaction).
• This is because they have the same number of
protons and the same number of electrons.
• The uncharged neutrons make no difference to
chemical properties but do affect physical
properties such as melting point and density.

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 How Many Electrons
• The atoms of any element have an equal
number of protons and electrons.
Atom Protons Neutrons Electrons
Helium 2 2 2
Copper 29 35 29
..and so
Cobalt 27 32 27
overall
Iodine 53 74 53 charge
equals
Germanium 32 41 32
zero

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 Activity
How Many Electrons
• Fill in the blank columns
Atom Protons Neutrons Electrons Atomic Mass
number Number
Boron 5 6 5 5 11
Potassium 19 20 19 19 39
Chromium 24 28 24 24 52
Mercury 80 121 80 80 201
Argon 18 22 18 18 40

Note – atomic number is defined as the number of protons

rather than electrons because atoms can lose (or gain)
electrons but do not normally lose protons

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 Summary: The atom so far!
The nucleus.
• Dense: contains nearly all the mass of the
atom in a tiny space.
• Made up of protons and neutrons.
• Has a positive charge because of the protons.

The electrons.
• Exist thinly spread around the outside of the
atom.
• Very small and light.
• Negatively charged.
• Exist in layers called shells.
• Can be lost or gained in chemical reactions.

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 Atoms – How Small?
N
• Atoms are about 1/100,000,000 cm

X 3,000,000,000
across. They are small.

• To make an atom the size of a football

we would have to magnify it to around
3,000,000,000 times its normal size

• If we magnified the size of a football by

the same amount it would stretch from
the UK to the USA!

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 Atoms – How Heavy?
O Billions of these atoms join to form
Si each tiny grain of sand
O

• A single grain of sand contains

billions of atoms of silicon and
oxygen.

• It follows that each atom must have

an extremely small mass.

• However, it is still possible to find out

the relative masses of atoms.
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 Even Smaller Particles!
• For some time people thought atoms were
the smallest particles and that they could
not be broken into anything smaller.

• We now know that atoms are themselves

made from even smaller and simpler
particles.

• These particles are

Protons
Neutrons
Electrons

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 Alpha
Beta
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 Lesson
Lesson Contents
Contents
1. Physical properties of a, b
and g
2. Penetrating power of a, b
and g
3. N v Z graphs
4. Decay laws

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 Alpha
Alpha Radiation
Radiation
Alpha particles contain two
protons and two neutrons

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 Alpha
Alpha Radiation
Radiation
a has the same constitution as
a helium nucleus
Alpha particles may be written
as

They have a double positive

charge and a mass of 4 u

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 Beta-minus
Beta-minus
Radiation
Radiation
Beta-minus particles are
electrons

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 Beta-minus
Beta-minus
Radiation
Radiation
b- is produced when a neutron
decays
Beta-minus particles may be
written as

They have a negative charge

and a mass of 1/1800 u

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 Beta-minus
Beta-minus
Radiation
Radiation
b- is produced when a neutron
decays

The surplus mass is released

as kinetic energy in the b- and
as an antineutrino

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 Gamma
Gamma Radiation
Radiation
Gamma rays are a form of
electro-magnetic radiation

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 Gamma
Gamma Radiation
Radiation
g release is often associated
with a or b decay
Gamma rays remove energy
from an unstable nucleus

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 Beta-plus
Beta-plus
Radiation
Radiation
b+ particles are
positrons

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 Beta-plus
Beta-plus
Radiation
Radiation
b+ is produced when a proton
decays

The surplus mass is released

as kinetic energy in the b+ and
as a neutrino

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 Penetrating
Penetrating power
power
a has a high mass
It is stopped by a few
centimetres of air
b has a small mass
It is stopped by a few
millimetres of aluminium
g has zero mass
It is stopped by thick lead or
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 Penetrating
Penetrating power
power
a has a high charge
It is dangerous if swallowed

b has a small charge

It is dangerous at medium
range
g has high energy
It is dangerous at distance
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 Penetrating
Penetrating power
power

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 N
NvvZ
Z graphs
graphs
A Graph of
neutron number
(N) against
proton number
(Z) helps to
predict whether
an isotope will
emit a or b-
radiation
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 N
NvvZ
Z graphs
graphs
Isotopes in this
region emit a
particles to
become more
stable.
N decreases by
2
Z decreases by 2

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 N
NvvZ
Z graphs
graphs
Isotopes in this
region emit b
particles to
become more
stable.
N decreases by
1
Z increases by 1

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 Decay
Decay laws
laws -- alpha
alpha
When an isotope emits an a
particle
 Its nucleon number decreases
by 4
 Its proton number decreases
by 2
For example:

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 Decay
Decay laws
laws –– beta-
beta-
minus
minus
When an isotope emits a b-
particle
 Its nucleon number is
unchanged
 Its proton number increases
by 1
For example:

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 Decay
Decay laws
laws –– beta-
beta-
plus
plus
When an isotope emits a b+
particle
 Its nucleon number is
unchanged
 Its proton number decreases
by 1
For example:

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The Atomic Nucleus
 Review…the nucleus
The nucleus is protons and neutrons
composed of particles
called nucleons..__ & __

Neutrons and protons neutrons

have the same mass,
with ___ being slightly
greater.

Neutrons have nearly electrons

2000 times the mass of

_____.
 Review…the atom
The mass of an atom is
nucleus
almost equal to the mass
of the _____ alone

Nucleons are bound

together by an attractive strong
nuclear force called the
____ force

The positively charged orbits

protons in the nucleus
hold the negatively
charged electrons in their
____
 Review…the atom
The number of ___ in the protons
nucleus determines the
chemical properties of
the atom

The # of protons
determines the # of ____
that orbit the atom

The # of ___ has no

direct effect on the # of
electrons
 Review…the atom
The principal role of the
neutrons in the nucleus cement
is to act as a sort of ____
to hold the nucleus
together

The electrical force acts

repulsive
as a ____ force between
protons

The atom needs a stability

certain balance of
neutrons and protons for
___
The symbol was created in 1946 UC- Berkeley to
represent “activity coming out of a atom”
 What is Radioactivity?
Radioactive decay is the process in which an
unstable atomic nucleus loses energy by emitting
radiation in the form of particles or electromagnetic
waves.

There are numerous types of radioactive decay. The

general idea:

An unstable nucleus releases energy to become

more stable
Radioactive Decay
 Radioactive Decay

A neutron is very unstable. A lone neutron

will spontaneously decay into a proton + an
electron.

If you have a lot of neutrons, within 11

minutes ½ of them will have decayed

Particles that decay are said to be radioactive

A lone neutron is radioactive

All the elements heavier than Bismuth (At # 83)
Their atoms emit 3 things…alpha, beta
particles and gamma rays
Which is more penetrating?
 Radioactive Isotope

Iodine-131, a beta emitter, is taken as sodium

iodide in drinking water. Almost all of it will
find its way to the thyroid
 Isotopes

They are atoms of the same element that

have different numbers of neutrons.
 Carbon Dating
The radioactivity of once living things decreases at a
predictable rate
 Uranium Dating
The dating of older, non-living things (like rocks) is
accomplished by radioactive minerals, such as
Uranium. Uranium decays very slowly.

Rocks on Earth have been dated to 3.7 bil yrs old

Rocks on Moon dated to 4.2 bil yrs old

The Earth has been dated to 4.6 bil yrs old

 Review…whew!
https://archive.org/details/NASARealWorldMa
th_WhatIsRadioactiveDecay_HD

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barium_swallow
Radiation Penetrating Power
Three Common Types of Radioactive
Emissions - Penetrability
Alpha particles may be
completely stopped by a
sheet of paper, beta
particles by aluminum
shielding. Gamma rays,
however, can only be
reduced by much more
substantial obstacles, such
as a very thick piece of
lead.
 Radiation Penetrating Power
http://www.passmyexams.co.uk/GCSE/physics
/penetrating-properties-of-radiation.html
 Radiation and You (and me)!

http://people.chem.duke.edu/~jds/cruise_che
m/nuclear/exposure.html
Is there radon in your home?
 Sources of Radioactivity

Primordial - from before the creation of the

Earth
Cosmogenic - formed as a result of cosmic
ray interactions
Human produced - enhanced or formed due
to human actions (minor amounts compared
to natural)
Radiation Exposure to Americans
 Review
Name three of the science pioneers in the
study of Radioactivity.?
Why does a nucleus decay?
Order these emissions from least to greatest
penetrability: Gamma, Alpha, Beta.
What is the greatest source of exposure to
radioactivity in our everyday lives?
 Nuclear Fusion
- Energy released when
two light nuclei combine or fuse

•However, a large amount of energy is

required to start a fusion reaction:

o Need this energy to overcome

repulsion
________
forces of protons.
o Extremely high temperatures can provide
start-up energy.

More energy in fusing hydrogen that fission of uranium

 Decay
Decay laws
laws
Try writing the nuclear
equations for the decay of
these isotopes

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 Decay
Decay laws
laws
Answers

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