Power Distribution and

Utilization
Introduction

Dr. Attique Ur Rehman

Faculty of Electrical Engineering
Ghulam Ishaq Khan Institute of Engineering Sciences and Technology
 Education
 Doctor of Philosophy | Auckland University of Technology, New Zealand; 2021
 Master of Science | RWTH Aachen University, Germany; 2013
 Bachelor of Engineering | Air University Islamabad, Pakistan; 2009

Current Position
Assistant Professor| GIK Institute, Pakistan; 2021 to date

Work Experience
 Data Analytics Engineer | Horizon Energy Group Ltd., New Zealand; 2021-21
 Callaghan Innovation R&D Fellow |Genesis Energy Ltd., New Zealand; 2018-21
 Researcher | Manukau Institute of Technology, New Zealand; 2019-20
 Research Associate | Ghulam Ishaq Khan Institute of Engineering Sciences and Technology, Pakistan; 2013-17
 Student Researcher | RWTH Aachen University, Germany; 2011-13
 Assistant Divisional Engineer | Pakistan Telecommunication Company Limited, Pakistan; 2009-10
Course Introduction
 Power Distribution and Utilization
 EE312
 2 Credit Hours
 Pre-Requisite - Electrical Network Analysis (EE212)

 Textbook - Principles of Power System

 V. K. Mehta and Rohit Mehta, 4th Edition

 Course Instructor
 Dr. Attique Ur Rehman
 Office F-11, Faculty of Electrical Engineering | [email protected] | Extn. 2339
 TBA
Course Contents
 Power Systems Basics: Power Triangle (Voltage, Watts, VARs); Three-phase systems; Overview of
electricity generation, transmission, and distribution; Load curves and demand calculation.
 Electricity Tariffs and Power Factor: Principles of electricity tariff calculation; Consequences of low
power factor; Methods for power factor correction and improvement calculations.
 Cabling and Fault Analysis: Types of cables; Cable faults and their localization; Fault testing techniques.
 Distribution Systems and Schemes: Overview of distribution systems; Connection schemes (Radial,
Ring Main, Interconnected); DC and AC distribution systems, including voltage drop and regulation
calculations.
 Substations and Switchgear: Substation layout; Switchgear equipment (isolators, fuses, circuit
breakers); Protection relays; Bus-bar arrangements.
 Grounding and Safety: Neutral grounding; Equipment grounding; Earthing; Earth resistance
measurement
 Utilization: Fundamentals of illumination engineering; Types of lamps; Electric heating and welding;
Batteries and electrochemical processes.
CLO/PLO Mapping and Assessment
Mechanism
CLO Course Learning Outcomes PLO Blooms Taxonomy
Be able to comprehend various types of power distribution
CLO-1 systems and the working of its components PLO-1 C-2 (Comprehension)
Be able to understand the working of protection devices/schemes
CLO-2 and utilization of electrical energy in different applications PLO-1 C-2 (Comprehension)
Be able to compute electrical quantities in distribution systems
CLO-3 PLO-2 C-3 (Applying)
and perform load/demand calculations
Be able to apply various techniques for power factor correction as
CLO-4 well as determine electricity tariff PLO-2 C-3 (Applying)
Be able to develop solution for complex engineering problems
CLO-5 related to power distribution and utilization and analyze the PLO-3 C-4 (Analyzing)
obtained results

Assessment Tools CLO-1 CLO-2 CLO-3 CLO-4 CLO-5

Scheduled/Surprise Quizzes 20% 25% 20% 30% -
Assignments 15% 20% 10% 20% -
Midterm Examination 45% - 25% - -
Final Examination 20% 55% 45% 50% -
Complex Engineering Problem - - - - 100%
Course Grading Policy & Administrative
Instructions
Assessment Tools Percentage
Scheduled/Surprise Quizzes 20
Assignments 5
Midterm Examination 30
Final Examination 40
Complex Engineering Problem 5

 Discipline and attendance are non-negotiable. Per institute policy, 80% attendance is required to be eligible
for the final examination. Approved leaves do not count toward the attendance percentage.
 Assignments must be submitted according to the given instructions. No retakes for assignments or quizzes,
whether scheduled or surprise.
 Plagiarism and the use of unfair means will result in a minimum course grade of 'F' and may lead to a
semester grade of 'F'.
 For any queries, please adhere to the designated office hours to avoid any inconvenience.
Distribution Vs. Utilization

 Electric power distribution is the final stage in the delivery of electric power; it carries electricity from the transmission system to
individual consumers.
 Utilization is the “end result” of the generation, transmission, and distribution of electric power. The energy carried by the
transmission and distribution system is turned into useful work, light, heat, or a combination of these items at the utilization point.
Power vs Energy
Energy Power
Definition Energy is the capacity to do work. Energy is power Power is the rate at which work is done, or energy is
integrated over time. transmitted.
Unit joules = watt-seconds watt = joules/second
Symbol W P
Example 60W light bulb is ON for 30 days raises the electricity Car's battery can provide 500 amps at 12 volts, which
bill by 43.2 kWh (kilowatt-hours). equals 6 kW of power.

 Work is force applied over distance. Work is a mechanical manifestation of energy. The standard unit of work is the
joule (J), equivalent to a newton . meter (N · m)
 Example
Power in Circuits
 In a DC circuit, the power consumed is simply the product of the DC voltage times the DC current,
given in watts. However, for AC circuits with reactive components, we have to calculate the
consumed power differently.

 Electrical power can be time-varying either as a DC quantity or as an AC quantity.

 The amount of power in a circuit at any instant of time is called the instantaneous power and is given
by the well-known relationship of power equals volts times amps
P=V×I
Power in AC Circuits
 A circuit element dissipates or produces power according to P=IV , where I is the current through
the element and V is the voltage across it.
 Since the current and the voltage both depend on time in an AC circuit, the instantaneous power
p(t) = i(t) v(t) is also time dependent.
Average Power
 Because instantaneous power varies in both magnitude and sign over a cycle, it seldom has any
practical importance. What we’re almost always concerned with is the power averaged over time,
which we refer to as the average power. It is defined by the time average of the instantaneous
power over one cycle.

cosɸ is known as the power factor, which is the amount by which the power delivered in the circuit is less than the
theoretical maximum of the circuit due to voltage and current being out of phase.
Average Power - RMS

 Both equations are correct for average power, but the rms values in the formula give a cleaner
representation, so the extra factor of 1/2 is not necessary.
 Alternating voltages and currents are usually described in terms of their rms values.
 For example, the 110 V from a household outlet is rms value. The amplitude of this source is 110√2 V =
156 V.
 Because most AC meters are calibrated in terms of rms values, a typical AC voltmeter placed across a
household outlet will read 110 V.
 Average Power
• A current flowing around an electric circuit may meet with three different kinds of opposition or
impedance. They are caused by resistance (R), inductance (L), and capacitance (C).

 For a resistor, i(t) and v(t) are in phase and therefore

always have the same sign.
 For a capacitor or inductor, the relative signs of i(t) and v(t)
vary over a cycle due to their phase differences.
Consequently, p(t) is positive at some times and negative at
others, indicating that capacitive and inductive elements
produce power at some instants and absorb it at others.
Average Power - Resistor

 For a resistor, ϕ = 0 , so the average power dissipated is

 p is always positive, all the power delivered by the source is absorbed by the load.

i v
Average Power - Capacitor and Inductor

 For a capacitor and an inductor, ϕ = π/2 and −π/2 rad, respectively.

 Since cos(π/2) = cos(−π/2) = 0, the average power dissipated by either of these elements is 0.
 Capacitors and inductors absorb energy from the circuit during one half-cycle and then discharge it back
to the circuit during the other half-cycle. This behavior is illustrated in the plots below, which show p(t)
oscillating sinusoidally about zero.
 Power - Inductor
𝑣 =𝑉 𝑚 sin 𝜔 𝑡 , 𝑖=𝐼 𝑚 sin ( 𝜔 𝑡 − 90∘ )
v
𝑝= 𝑣𝑖=𝑉 𝑚 sin 𝜔 𝑡 × 𝐼 𝑚 sin ( 𝜔 𝑡 − 90 ) ∘

𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 i
𝑝=− 𝑉 𝑚 sin 𝜔 𝑡 × 𝐼 𝑚 cos 𝜔 𝑡=− sin 2 𝜔 𝑡
2
𝑝=−
( )( )
𝑉 𝑚 𝐼𝑚
√ 2 √2
sin 2 𝜔 𝑡 =−𝑉 𝑅𝑀𝑆 𝐼 𝑅𝑀𝑆 sin 2 𝜔 𝑡

 For an inductor, ϕ = -90 , so the average power dissipated is zero.

 p is equally positive and negative, all the power delivered by the
source is returned.
 Power - Capacitor
𝑣 =𝑉 𝑚 sin 𝜔 𝑡 , 𝑖=𝐼 𝑚 sin ( 𝜔 𝑡 + 90∘ )
i
𝑝= 𝑣𝑖=𝑉 𝑚 sin 𝜔 𝑡 × 𝐼 𝑚 sin ( 𝜔 𝑡 +90∘ ) v
𝑉 𝑚𝐼𝑚
𝑝=𝑉 𝑚 sin 𝜔 𝑡 × 𝐼 𝑚 cos 𝜔 𝑡 = sin 2 𝜔 𝑡
2
𝑝=
( )( )
𝑉 𝑚 𝐼𝑚
√2 √2
sin 2 𝜔 𝑡=𝑉 𝑅𝑀𝑆 𝐼 𝑅𝑀𝑆 sin 2 𝜔 𝑡

 For a capacitor, ϕ = 90 , so the average power dissipated is zero.

 p is equally positive and negative, all the power delivered by the
source is returned.
 No power losses with a pure reactive load.
Types of Power
 Real power, also known as active power or true power, is the actual power that performs work in
a circuit.
 It is the power consumed by resistive components to perform useful work, such as lighting a bulb,
powering a motor, or running electronic devices.
 Real power is measured in watts (W).
 In an AC circuit, real power is calculated as:
P = V I cos⁡(ϕ)
 Characteristics: Real power represents the actual energy being used and converted into other
forms of energy (like light, heat, or mechanical energy). It does not involve energy storage or
delay; it’s the power you pay for on your electricity bill.
Types of Power
 Reactive power is the power that alternates between the source and the reactive components
(inductors and capacitors) of the system.
 It doesn’t perform any useful work but is necessary to maintain the voltage levels in the system and to
ensure that the current and voltage are in phase.
 Reactive power is measured in volt-amperes reactive (VAR).
 In an AC circuit, reactive power is calculated as:
Q = V I sin⁡(ϕ)
 Characteristics: Reactive power is associated with the energy stored and released by inductors
and capacitors in the circuit. It doesn’t perform any real work but is crucial for maintaining the
electric and magnetic fields required for the operation of inductive and capacitive components.
Types of Power
 Apparent power is the combination of real power and reactive power.
 It represents the total power that flows from the source to the load and back.
 Apparent power is measured in volt-amperes (VA).
 Apparent power is calculated as:
S=VI
 Apparent power is a complex quantity made up of real active power and imaginary reactive
power. It can be related to real and reactive power using the formula:

S  P  jQ (VA)

S2 = P 2 + Q 2
AC Real (Active) Power
 The Active power is the power that is dissipated in the resistance of the load.
 It uses the same formula used for DC (V & I are the magnitudes, not the phasors).

2 V2
P I R  [watts, W]
R

Note. The voltage in the above equation is the voltage drop across the resistor, not across the entire circuit.
AC Imaginary (Reactive) Power
 The reactive power is the power that is exchanged between reactive components (inductors and
capacitors).
 The formulas look similar to those used by the active power but use reactance instead of
resistances.

2V2
Q I X  [VAR]
X

Note. The voltage in the above equation is the drop across the reactance, not across the entire circuit.
Q is negative for a capacitor by convention and positive for inductor. Just like X is negative for a capacitor (-jX c)
AC Apparent Power
 The apparent power is the power that is “appears” to flow to the load.
 The magnitude of apparent power can be calculated using similar formulas to those for active or
reactive power.

2 V2
S VI  I Z  [VA]
Z

 Z is AC Impedance, a complex quantity made up of real resistance and imaginary reactance

(inductance/capacitance).
-
Z  R  jX ( )
Power Triangle
 The power triangle graphically shows the relationship between real (P), reactive (Q) and apparent
power (S).

S  IV (VA) S  P2  Q2

P S cos (W) S P  jQL

Q S sin  (VAR) S S 
Power Factor
 The term cos is referred to as the power factor (pf). It is the ratio of active power (W) to the
apparent power (VA) of an electrical installation.

 Power factor is the measurement of how effectively electrical equipment converts electrical
power (supplied by the power utility) into a useful power output.
 The higher the pf, the more effectively electrical power is being used and vice versa.
 Low pf is expensive and inefficient, with many utility companies charging extra, (reactive power charge),
for sites with a poor power factor.
 Low pf can also reduce the capacity of electrical distribution system by increasing current flow and
causing voltage drops.

Inductive circuits have lagging power factors.

Capacitive circuits have leading power factors.
Total Power in AC Circuits
 The total real (PT) and reactive power (QT) is simply the sum of the real and reactive power for
each individual circuit elements.
 How elements are connected does not matter for computation of total power

PT  P1  P2  P3  P4
QT Q1  Q2  Q3  Q4
Current Lag and Lead - Why?
 A current flowing around an electric circuit may meet with three different kinds of opposition or
impedance. They are caused by resistance (R), inductance (L), and capacitance (C).
 Resistance is the easiest to understand, because it has the same effect on both direct currents and
alternating currents. When the voltage across the two terminals of a resistance changes, the current
changes immediately. If the voltage rises, the current rises; and if the voltage falls, the current falls,
and so on. Current and voltage are said to be in phase.

 Inductors (L) and capacitors (C) behave quite differently.

 In 'L' circuits a rise in voltage is accompanied by a rise in current, but this rise is delayed by a back e.m.f.
generated by the inductor. As the voltage rises and falls, the current rises and falls, but a fraction of a second
later. So, the current flowing through the inductor is always lagging (behind) the voltage, and current and voltage
are said to be out of phase.
 In 'C' circuits, on the other hand, the current in the circuit must first flow to the two plates of the capacitor
(round the circuit from plate to plate and not across the gap between the plates) to make a potential difference
across them. As the current rises, the voltage between the two plates rises; and as the current falls, the voltage
falls, but the voltage follows the current's lead a fraction of a second later. Current and voltage are again out of
phase, only in 'C' circuits the current is always leading the voltage.
https://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedia/C/current_lag_and_lead.html
Resistance

https://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedia/C/current_lag_and_lead.html
Inductance

https://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedia/C/current_lag_and_lead.html
Capacitance

https://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedia/C/current_lag_and_lead.html
Current Lag and Lead - Why?
Phase in Electricity
 A phase in electricity refers to the relationship between the voltage and current waveforms in an
AC (alternating current) circuit. Specifically, it is the voltage or current between a live wire and a
neutral wire.
 In simple terms, phase indicates the position of the waveform at a given point in time. In AC
systems, which use sinusoidal waves, phase describes how the waveform of a signal compares to
another waveform.
 Single-Phase Systems: Most residential AC systems use single-phase power. In a single-phase system,
the AC voltage waveform is described by one sine wave.
 Three-Phase Systems: Many industrial and commercial systems use three-phase power, which consists
of three separate AC waveforms, each phase shifted by 120 degrees from the others.
Single Phase
Three Phase Generator
Single Phase & Three Phase System
 In single phase circuit, there will be only one phase, i.e., the current will flow through only one
wire and there will be one return path called neutral line to complete the circuit.
 In single phase minimum amount of power can be transported. Here the generating station and load
station will also be single phase.
 In 1882, an invention has been done on polyphase system, that more than one phase can be used
for generating, transmitting and for load system. Three phase circuit is the polyphase system
where three phases are send together from the generator to the load.
 Each phase are having a phase difference of 120 o, i.e., from the total of 360o, three phases are equally
divided into 120o each. The power in three phase system is continuous as all the three phases are
involved in generating the total power.
 The three phases can be used as single phase each. Therefore, if the load is single phase, then one
phase can be taken from the three-phase circuit and the neutral can be used as ground to complete the
circuit.
Single Phase & Three Phase System
 Comparison Single Phase Power Supply Three Phase Power Supply
The supplied voltage is equal to The phase-to-phase voltage is
the voltage difference between equal to √3 times the phase
Single Phase Power Supply Three Phase Power Supply phase and neutral. voltage. While phase to neutral
voltage is equal to single
The AC power where all the The AC power where there are phase voltage.
voltages has same sinusoidal 3 sinusoidal voltages having It carries less power than It can carry high power as
pattern. 120° phase difference. equivalent three phase supply. compared to 3 single phase AC
It require either 3 or 4 power supplies.
It requires only two wires to
conductors depending on the It is used for power It is used for power
complete the circuit.
configuration. distribution over short transmission over long
It is also known as Split It is also known as Poly distances. distances because of lower
Phase System. Phase System copper losses.
The power losses in single The power losses in three phase
Single phase is very simple. It is complex than single phase.
phase is relatively higher. is relatively lower.
It can power small loads less It can power heavy loads above It needs expensive Wye arranged three phase
than 1000 Watts. 1000 Watts. converters to convert into three supply can offer 3 single-
Power failure occurs due to Impervious to power failure phase power supply. phase using either phase wire
a fault in power line. due fault in signal power line. and neutral wire.
It more reliable and It is less economical as It is more economical as it uses
It is less reliable and compared to poly phase system. only 4 wires instead of 6 to
efficient than single phase
efficient as three phase. supply the same power.
power.
It is used for powering home It is used for powering heavy
The voltage and current goes The voltage and current never
appliance and office loads in industries.
to zero in a cycle. goes to zero.
equipment.
Why Three Phase System?
 More uniform power delivery system
 Less number of wires required if we have three different loads.
 More balanced load
 Higher power delivery and less losses
 More economical use of conductors and transformers

Line voltage is the voltage between two phases in three phase circuit
Phase voltage is the voltage between one phase to the neutral line.

https://www.electrical4u.com/three-phase-circuit-star-and-delta-system/
 Three Phase Connection Types
 Star (Wye or Y) Connection
 In star connection, there is four wire: three wires are phase wire and fourth is neutral which is taken
from the star point.
 Star connection is preferred for long distance power transmission because it is having the neutral point.
 Delta Connection
 In delta connection, there is three wires alone and no neutral terminal is taken.
 Normally delta connection is preferred for short distance due to the problem of unbalanced* current in
the circuit.

*Balanced and unbalanced current in Power System

 When equal current will flow through all the three phases, then it is called as balanced current. And when the current will not be
equal in any of the phase, then it is unbalanced current.
 During balanced condition there will be no current flowing through the neutral line and hence there is no use of the neutral terminal.
But when there will be unbalanced current flowing in the three-phase circuit, neutral is having a vital role. It will take the unbalanced
current through to the ground and protect the transformer. Unbalanced current affects transformer and it may also cause damage to
the transformer and for this star connection is preferred for long distance transmission.
 The unequal distribution of loads between the three phases of the system cause the flow of unbalanced currents in the system, that
produce unbalanced voltage drops on the electric lines. This increase in neutral current which cause line losses.
Star Connection

 In star connection,
 Line current is same as that of phase current
 Line voltage is √3 times of phase voltage
Delta Connection

 In delta connection
 Line voltage is the same as that of phase voltage
 Line current is √3 times of phase current
Arrangement
 In a three-phase circuit, star and delta connection can be arranged in four different ways:
 Star-Star connection (i.e., Y-connected source with a Y-connected load)
 Star-Delta connection
 Delta-Star connection
 Delta-Delta connection
https://wiraelectrical.com/balanced-wye-wye-connection/
Power in Three-Phase Circuit
 The power is independent of the circuit arrangement of the three-phase system. The net power in
the circuit will be same in both star and delta connection. The power in three phase circuit can be
calculated from the equation below,

 Since, there is three phases, so the multiple of 3 is made in the normal power equation and the
PF is power factor.
 Comparison - Star & Delta Connections
Star Connection (Y or Wye) Delta Connection (Δ)
A Star Connection is a 4 - wire connection - 4th wire is optional in A Delta Connection is a 3 - wire connection.
some cases
Two types of Star Connection systems are possible: 4 - wire 3 - phase In Delta Connection, only 3 - wire 3 phase system is possible.
system and 3 - wire 3 phase system.
Out of the 4 wires, 3 wires are the phases and 1 wire is the neutral All the 3 wires are phases in a Delta Connection.
(which is the common point of the 3 wires).
In a Star Connection, one end of all the three wires are connected to In a Delta Connection, every wire is connected to two adjacent wires
a common point in the shape of Y, such that all the three open ends in the form of a triangle (Δ) and all the three common points of the
of the three wires form the three phases and the common point connection form the three phases.
forms the neutral.
The Common point of the Star Connection is called Neutral or Star There is no neutral in Delta Connection
Point.
Line Voltage (voltage between any two phases) and Phase Voltage Line Voltage and Phase Voltage are same.
(voltage between any of the phase and neutral) is different.
Line Current and Phase Current are same. Line current is root three times the phase current.
 Comparison - Star & Delta Connections
Star Connection (Y or Wye) Delta Connection (Δ)
Total three phase Power in a Star Connection can be calculated using Total three phase Power in a Delta Connection can be calculated
the following formulae. using the following formulae.
P = 3 x V x I x Cos(Φ) or P = 3 x V x I x Cos(Φ) or
P P P P
P = √3 x V x I x Cos(Φ) P = √3 x V x I x Cos(Φ)
L L L L

Since Line Voltage and Phase Voltage are different (V = √3 V ), the In a Delta Connection, the Line and Phase Voltages are same and
L P hence, more insulation is required for individual phases.
insulation required for each phase is less in a Star Connection.
Usually, Star Connection is used in both transmission and Delta Connection is generally used in distribution networks.
distribution networks (with either single phase supply or three –
phase.
Since insulation required is less, Star Connection can be used for long Delta Connections are used for shorter distances.
distances.
Star Connections are often used in application which require less Delta Connections are often used in applications which require high
starting current. starting torque.
Power System Layout
One Line Diagram
 A single-line diagram (SLD), also sometimes called one-line diagram, is a simplest symbolic
representation of an electric power system.
 Power systems are frequently represented by a single line showing all three phases of the real
system.
 Such diagrams usually include all the major components of a power system: generators, busses, transformers,
transmission lines, loads, etc.

One-line Diagram
Voltage Levels
 The electric power network is operated at several voltage levels. The table below shows a simple
power system with typical voltage levels from generation to consumption.

Power Voltage
Generation 11 - 33 kV
Transmission 138 - 765 kV
Sub-Transmission 23 - 138 kV
Distribution 4.16 - 34.5 kV
Utilization 240 - 480 V
Energy Sources
 Non-renewable resources are available in a limited amount.
 Petroleum
 Natural gas
 Coal
 Renewable resources can naturally regenerate or reborn over relatively short period of time.
 Solar Energy
 Wind Energy
 Geothermal Energy
 Hydropower Energy
 Ocean Energy: Tidal & Wave
 Biomass
Comparison - Renewable vs Non-renewable
Renewable Non-renewable
Can be used again and again Once finished cannot be used again
It has low carbon emission so are environment- It has high carbon emission so are not environment-
friendly friendly
These resources are infinite, which means they cannot These are finite, which means they can be finished
be finished anytime
These are low-cost resources and cannot be exhausted These are high-cost resources and are exhaustible

These are pollution-free These are not pollution-free

The renewal rate is higher than the consumption rate Lower renewal rate than consumption
These are not harmful to life on planet These can be harmful
High maintenance cost Low maintenance cost as compared to renewable
resources
A large land area is required for the installation of Less land is required for installation
their power plant
The energy mix is a group of different
primary energy sources from which
secondary energy for direct use - such
as electricity - is produced.
Solar Energy
 Photovoltaics directly convert solar energy into electricity. They work on the principle of the
photovoltaic effect.
 When certain materials are exposed to light, they absorb photons and release free electrons. This
phenomenon is called as the photoelectric effect. Photovoltaic effect is a method of producing direct
current electricity based on the principle of the photoelectric effect.
 Based on the principle of photovoltaic effect, solar cells or photovoltaic cells are made. They
convert sunlight into direct current (DC) electricity.
 A single photovoltaic cell does not produce enough amount of electricity. Therefore, a number of
photovoltaic cells are mounted on a supporting frame and are electrically connected to each other to
form a photovoltaic module or solar panel.
Solar Energy

 Limitations
 Geographical and weather dependance
 Requires high initial investments
 Technology has not reached its optimum potential yet
Wind Power
 The generator in wind turbines produces Alternating Current (AC) electricity.
 Some turbines convert this AC electricity to Direct Current (DC) with a rectifier, and then back to AC
using an inverter. The purpose of this, is so the frequency and phase of the electricity is in line with
that supplied by the grid.

 Wind power is becoming more and more common. The new innovations that are allowing
wind farms to appear are making them a more common sight.
 Limitations
 It requires high investment, and wind speed is also not uniform every time, which affects the
generation of power. While this seemed like an ideal solution to many, the reality of the wind
farms is starting to reveal an unforeseen ecological impact that may not make it an ideal choice.
Geothermal Energy

 Geothermal energy is the energy that is produced from beneath the earth. It is clean, sustainable
and environmentally friendly. High temperatures are produced continuously inside the earth’s
crust by the slow delay of radioactive particles. Hot rocks present below the earth heats up the
water that produces steam. The steam is then captured, which helps to move turbines. The
rotating turbines then power the generators.
 Geothermal energy can be used by a residential unit or on a large scale by an industrial
application. It was used during ancient times for bathing and space heating. Geothermal plants
typically have low emissions if they pump the steam and water they use back into the reservoir.
 The biggest disadvantage of geothermal energy is that it can only be produced at selected sites
throughout the world. The largest group of geothermal power plants in the world is located at The
Geysers, a geothermal field in California, United States. Another disadvantage is, where there are no
underground reservoirs, creating geothermal plants may increase the risk of an earthquake in areas
already considered geological hot spots.
Hydrogen Energy
 Hydrogen is available with water (H2O) and is the most common element available on earth.
Water contains two-thirds of hydrogen and can be found in combination with other elements.
 Once it is separated, it can be used as a fuel for generating electricity. Hydrogen is a tremendous
source of energy and can be used as a source of fuel to power ships, vehicles, homes, industries
and rockets. It is completely renewable, can be produced on demand and does not leave any toxic
emissions in the atmosphere.
Tidal Energy

 Tidal energy uses the rise and fall of tides to convert the kinetic energy of incoming and outgoing tides into
electrical energy. The generation of energy through tidal power is most prevalent in coastal areas. Tidal
energy is one of the renewable sources of energy and produces large energy even when the tides are at
low speed.
 When there is an increased height of water levels in the ocean, tides are produced, which rush back and
forth in the ocean. In order to capture sufficient power from the tidal energy potential, the altitude of high
tide needs to be at least five meters (around 16 feet) greater than low tide.
 Huge investment and limited availability of sites are a few of the drawbacks of tidal energy. The high civil
construction and high power purchase tariff make the capital cost for tidal energy power plants very high.
Wave Energy

 Wave energy is produced from the waves that are produced in the oceans. Different techniques
for transforming wave energy to electric power have been studied with dam-like structures or
ocean floor-anchored devices on or just below the water’s surface.
 Wave energy is renewable, environment friendly and causes no harm to the atmosphere. It can
be harnessed along coastal regions of many countries and can help a country to reduce its
dependence on foreign countries for fuel.
 Producing wave energy can damage the marine ecosystem and can also be a source of
disturbance to private and commercial vessels. It is highly dependent on wavelength and can also
be a source of visual and noise pollution.
Hydroelectric Energy

 The power of the water is used to turn generators to produce the electricity that is then used. It is
non-polluting, entails no waste or produces toxic gases, and environment friendly.
 The problems faced with hydropower right now have to do with the aging of the dams. Many of
them need major restoration work to remain functional and safe, and that costs enormous sums
of money.
Biomass Energy

 Biomass energy is produced from organic material and is commonly used throughout the world.
Chlorophyll present in plants captures the sun’s energy by converting carbon dioxide from the air
and water from the ground into carbohydrates through the process of photosynthesis. When the
plants are burned, the water and carbon dioxide are again released back into the atmosphere.
 Biomass generally includes crops, plants, trees, yard clippings, wood chips and animal wastes.
Biomass energy is used for heating and cooking in homes and as a fuel in industrial production.
 This type of energy produces a large amount of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. In the
absence of sufficient ventilation, while cooking indoor, fuels such as dung cause air pollution,
which is a serious health hazard. Moreover, unsustainable and inefficient use of biomass leads to
the destruction of vegetation and hence degradation of the environment.