Artificial Intelligence

Problem solving by searching

CSC 361

University of Berkeley, USA

http://www.aima.cs.berkeley.edu
Problem Solving by
Searching

Search Methods :
informed (Heuristic)
search
Using problem specific
knowledge to aid searching
 Without incorporating
Search
knowledge into searching,
one can have no bias (i.e. a everywhere
preference) on the search !!
space.

 Without a bias, one is forced

to look everywhere to find the
answer. Hence, the
complexity of uninformed
search is intractable.

3
 Using problem specific
knowledge to aid searching
 With knowledge, one can search the state space as if he was
given “hints” when exploring a maze.
 Heuristic information in search = Hints
 Leads to dramatic speed up in efficiency.

B C D E
Search
F G H I J
only in
this K L M N
subtree!!
O 4
 More formally, why heuristic
functions work?
 In any search problem where there are at most b choices
at each node and a depth of d at the goal node, a naive
search algorithm would have to, in the worst case, search
around O(bd) nodes before finding a solution
(Exponential Time Complexity).

 Heuristics improve the efficiency of search algorithms

by reducing the effective branching factor from b to
(ideally) a low constant b* such that
 1 =< b* << b

5
 Heuristic Functions
 A heuristic function is a function f(n) that gives an estimation on
the “cost” of getting from node n to the goal state – so that the
node with the least cost among all possible choices can be
selected for expansion first.

 Three approaches to defining f:


f measures the value of the current state (its “goodness”)


f measures the estimated cost of getting to the goal from the current
state:

f(n) = h(n) where h(n) = an estimate of the cost to get
from n to a goal


f measures the estimated cost of getting to the goal state from the
current state and the cost of the existing path to it. Often, in this
case, we decompose f:

f(n) = g(n) + h(n) where g(n) = the cost to get to n (from
initial state) 6
 Approach 1: f Measures the Value
of the Current State

 Usually the case when solving optimization problems

 Finding a state such that the value of the metric f is
optimized

 Often, in these cases, f could be a weighted sum of a

set of component values:

 N-Queens

Example: the number of queens under attack …

 Data mining

Example: the “predictive-ness” (a.k.a. accuracy) of a rule
discovered 7
 Approach 2: f Measures the Cost
to the Goal

A state X would be better than a state Y if the

estimated cost of getting from X to the goal
is lower than that of Y – because X would be
closer to the goal than Y

• 8–Puzzle
h1: The number of misplaced tiles
(squares with number).
h2: The sum of the distances of the tiles
from their goal positions.
8
 Approach 3: f measures the total cost
of the solution path (Admissible
Heuristic Functions)
 A heuristic function f(n) = g(n) + h(n) is admissible if h(n) never
overestimates the cost to reach the goal.
 Admissible heuristics are “optimistic”: “the cost is not that much …”
 However, g(n) is the exact cost to reach node n from the initial state.
 Therefore, f(n) never over-estimate the true cost to reach the goal
state through node n.
 Theorem: A search is optimal if h(n) is admissible.
 I.e. The search using h(n) returns an optimal solution.
 Given h2(n) > h1(n) for all n, it’s always more efficient to use h2(n).
 h2 is more realistic than h1 (more informed), though both are optimistic.

9
 Traditional informed
search strategies
 Greedy Best first search
 “Always chooses the successor node with the best f value”
where f(n) = h(n)
 We choose the one that is nearest to the final state among
all possible choices

 A* search
 Best first search using an “admissible” heuristic function f
that takes into account the current cost g
 Always returns the optimal solution path
10
Informed Search
Strategies

Best First Search

 An implementation of Best
First Search
function BEST-FIRST-SEARCH (problem, eval-
fn)
returns a solution sequence, or failure

queuing-fn = a function that sorts nodes by eval-fn

return GENERIC-SEARCH (problem,queuing-

fn)

12
Informed Search
Strategies

Greedy Search
eval-fn: f(n) = h(n)
 Greedy Search
Start State Heuristic:
A 75 h(n)
118
A 366
140 B
C B 374
111
E C 329
D 80 99 D 244
E 253
G F
F 178
97
G 193
H 211 H 98
101 I 0
I
Goal f(n) = h (n) = straight-line distance
heuristic
14
 Greedy Search
Start State Heuristic:
A 75 h(n)
118
A 366
140 B
C B 374
111
E C 329
D 80 99 D 244
E 253
G F
F 178
97
G 193
H 211 H 98
101 I 0
I
Goal f(n) = h (n) = straight-line distance
heuristic
15
 Greedy Search
Start State Heuristic:
A 75 h(n)
118
A 366
140 B
C B 374
111
E C 329
D 80 99 D 244
E 253
G F
F 178
97
G 193
H 211 H 98
101 I 0
I
Goal f(n) = h (n) = straight-line distance
heuristic
16
 Greedy Search
Start State Heuristic:
A 75 h(n)
118
A 366
140 B
C B 374
111
E C 329
D 80 99 D 244
E 253
G F
F 178
97
G 193
H 211 H 98
101 I 0
I
Goal f(n) = h (n) = straight-line distance
heuristic
17
 Greedy Search
Start State Heuristic:
A 75 h(n)
118
A 366
140 B
C B 374
111
E C 329
D 80 99 D 244
E 253
G F
F 178
97
G 193
H 211 H 98
101 I 0
I
Goal f(n) = h (n) = straight-line distance
heuristic
18
 Greedy Search
Start State Heuristic:
A 75 h(n)
118
A 366
140 B
C B 374
111
E C 329
D 80 99 D 244
E 253
G F
F 178
97
G 193
H 211 H 98
101 I 0
I
Goal f(n) = h (n) = straight-line distance
heuristic
19
 Greedy Search
Start State Heuristic:
A 75 h(n)
118
A 366
140 B
C B 374
111
E C 329
D 80 99 D 244
E 253
G F
F 178
97
G 193
H 211 H 98
101 I 0
I
Goal f(n) = h (n) = straight-line distance
heuristic
20
 Greedy Search
Start State Heuristic:
A 75 h(n)
118
A 366
140 B
C B 374
111
E C 329
D 80 99 D 244
E 253
G F
F 178
97
G 193
H 211 H 98
101 I 0
I
Goal f(n) = h (n) = straight-line distance
heuristic
21
 Greedy Search
Start State Heuristic:
A 75 h(n)
118
A 366
140 B
C B 374
111
E C 329
D 80 99 D 244
E 253
G F
F 178
97
G 193
H 211 H 98
101 I 0
I
Goal f(n) = h (n) = straight-line distance
heuristic
22
 Greedy Search
Start State Heuristic:
A 75 h(n)
118
A 366
140 B
C B 374
111
E C 329
D 80 99 D 244
E 253
G F
F 178
97
G 193
H 211 H 98
101 I 0
I
Goal f(n) = h (n) = straight-line distance
heuristic
23
Greedy Search: Tree
Search
Start
A

24
Greedy Search: Tree
Search
Start
A 75
118

[329] C 140 [374] B

[253] E

25
Greedy Search: Tree
Search
Start
A 75
118

[329] C 140 [374] B

[253] E
80 99

[193] [178]
G F
[366] A

26
Greedy Search: Tree
Search
Start
A 75
118

[329] C 140 [374] B

[253] E
80 99

[193] [178]
G F
[366] A
211

[253] E I [0]

Goal

27
 Greedy Search: Tree
Search
Start
A 75
118

[329] C 140 [374] B

[253] E
80 99

[193] [178]
G F
[366] A
211

[253] E I [0]

Goal
Path cost(A-E-F-I) = 253 + 178 + 0 = 431
28
dist(A-E-F-I) = 140 + 99 + 211 = 450
 Greedy Search: Optimal ?
Start State Heuristic:
A 75 h(n)
118
A 366
140 B
C B 374
111
E C 329
D 80 99 D 244
E 253
G F
F 178
97
G 193
H 211 H 98
101 I 0
I
Goal f(n) = h (n) = straight-line distance
heuristic
29
 Greedy Search:
Complete ?
Start State Heuristic:
A 75 h(n)
118
A 366
140 B
C B 374
111
E ** C 250
D 80 99 D 244
E 253
G F
F 178
97
G 193
H 211 H 98
101 I 0
I
Goal f(n) = h (n) = straight-line distance
heuristic
30
Greedy Search: Tree
Search
Start
A

31
Greedy Search: Tree
Search
Start
A 75
118

[250] C 140 [374] B

[253] E

32
 Greedy Search: Tree
Search
Start
A 75
118

[250] C 140 [374] B

[253] E
111
[244] D

33
 Greedy Search: Tree
Search
Start
A 75
118

[250] C 140 [374] B

[253] E
111
[244] D

Infinite Branch !
[250] C

34
 Greedy Search: Tree
Search
Start
A 75
118

[250] C 140 [374] B

[253] E
111
[244] D

Infinite Branch !
[250] C

[244] D

35
 Greedy Search: Tree
Search
Start
A 75
118

[250] C 140 [374] B

[253] E
111
[244] D

Infinite Branch !
[250] C

[244] D

36
 Greedy Search: Time and
Space Complexity ?
Start
A
118 75 • Greedy search is not
C 140 B optimal.
111
E
• Greedy search is
D 80 99
incomplete without
G F systematic checking of
97 repeated states.
H 211
• In the worst case, the
101
I Time and Space Complexity
Goal of Greedy Search are both
37
O(b )
m
Informed Search
Strategies

A* Search

eval-fn: f(n)=g(n)+h(n)
A* (A Star)
 Greedy Search minimizes a heuristic h(n) which is an
estimated cost from a node n to the goal state. Greedy
Search is efficient but it is not optimal nor complete.

 Uniform Cost Search minimizes the cost g(n) from the

initial state to n. UCS is optimal and complete but not
efficient.

 New Strategy: Combine Greedy Search and UCS to get an

efficient algorithm which is complete and optimal.

39
A* (A Star)
 A* uses a heuristic function which
combines g(n) and h(n): f(n) = g(n) + h(n)

 g(n) is the exact cost to reach node n from

the initial state.

 h(n) is an estimation of the remaining cost

to reach the goal.
40
A* (A Star)

g(n)

f(n) = g(n) n
+h(n)

h(n)

41
 A* Search
Start State Heuristic:
A 75 h(n)
118
A 366
140 B
C B 374
111
E C 329
D 80 99 D 244
E 253
G F
F 178
97
G 193
H 211 H 98
101 I 0
I
Goal f(n) = g(n) + h (n)
g(n): is the exact cost to reach node n from the initial 42
A* Search: Tree Search
A Start

43
A* Search: Tree Search
A Start

118 75
140

[447 C E [393 B [449

] ]
]

44
A* Search: Tree Search
A Start

118 75
140

[447 C E [393 B [449

] ]
] 80 99

[413 G F [417
] ]

45
A* Search: Tree Search
A Start

118 75
140

[447 C E [393 B [449

] ]
] 80 99

[413 G F [417
] ]
97
[415 H
]

46
A* Search: Tree Search
A Start

118 75
140

[447 C E [393 B [449

] ]
] 80 99

[413 G F [417
] ]
97
[415 H
]
101
Goal I [418]

47
A* Search: Tree Search
A Start

118 75
140

[447 C E [393 B [449

] ]
] 80 99

[413 G F [417
] ]
97
[415 H I [450
] ]
101
Goal I [418]

48
A* Search: Tree Search
A Start

118 75
140

[447 C E [393 B [449

] ]
] 80 99

[413 G F [417
] ]
97
[415 H I [450
] ]
101
Goal I [418]

49
A* Search: Tree Search
A Start

118 75
140

[447 C E [393 B [449

] ]
] 80 99

[413 G F [417
] ]
97
[415 H I [450
] ]
101
Goal I [418]

50
A* with f() not Admissible

h() overestimates the cost to

reach the goal state
 A* Search: h not
admissible !
Start State Heuristic:
A 75 h(n)
118
A 366
140 B
C B 374
111
E C 329
D 80 99 D 244
E 253
G F
F 178
97
G 193
H 211 H 138
101 I 0
I
Goal f(n) = g(n) + h (n) – (H-I) Overestimated
g(n): is the exact cost to reach node n from the initial 52
A* Search: Tree Search
A Start

53
A* Search: Tree Search
A Start

118 75
140

[447 C E [393 B [449

] ]
]

54
A* Search: Tree Search
A Start

118 75
140

[447 C E [393 B [449

] ]
] 80 99

[413 G F [417
] ]

55
A* Search: Tree Search
A Start

118 75
140

[447 C E [393 B [449

] ]
] 80 99

[413 G F [417
] ]
97
[455 H
]

56
A* Search: Tree Search
A Start

118 75
140

[447 C E [393 B [449

] ]
] 80 99

[413 G F [417
] ]
97
[455 H Goal I [450
] ]

57
 A* Search: Tree Search
A Start

118 75
140

[447 C E [393 B [449

] ]
] 80 99

[473 [413 G F [417

D
] ] ]
97
[455 H Goal I [450
] ]

58
 A* Search: Tree Search
A Start

118 75
140

[447 C E [393 B [449

] ]
] 80 99

[473 [413 G F [417

D
] ] ]
97
[455 H Goal I [450
] ]

59
 A* Search: Tree Search
A Start

118 75
140

[447 C E [393 B [449

] ]
] 80 99

[473 [413 G F [417

D
] ] ]
97
[455 H Goal I [450
] ]

60
 A* Search: Tree Search
A Start

118 75
140

[447 C E [393 B [449

] ]
] 80 99

[473 [413 G F [417

D
] ] ]
97
[455 H Goal I [450
] ]

A* not optimal !!!

61
A* Algorithm

A* with systematic checking

for repeated states …
A* Algorithm
1. Search queue Q is empty.
2. Place the start state s in Q with f value h(s).
3. If Q is empty, return failure.
4. Take node n from Q with lowest f value.
(Keep Q sorted by f values and pick the first element).
5. If n is a goal node, stop and return solution.
6. Generate successors of node n.
7. For each successor n’ of n do:
a) Compute f(n’) = g(n) + cost(n,n’) + h(n’).
b) If n’ is new (never generated before), add n’ to Q.
c) If node n’ is already in Q with a higher f value,
replace it with current f(n’) and place it in sorted
order in Q.
End for
8. Go back to step 3. 63
 A* Search: Analysis
Start •A* is complete except if there
118
A 75 is an infinity of nodes with f <
B f(G).
C 140
111 •A* is optimal if heuristic h is
E
D 80 99 admissible.
•Time complexity depends on
G F
the quality of heuristic but is
97
still exponential.
H 211
•For space complexity, A*
101
keeps all nodes in memory. A*
I
Goal has worst case O(bd) space
complexity, but an iterative 64
Informed Search
Strategies

Iterative Deepening A*
Iterative Deepening
A*:IDA*


Use f(N) = g(N) + h(N) with
admissible and consistent h

 Each iteration is depth-first with

cutoff on the value of f of
expanded nodes
66
Consistent Heuristic
 The admissible heuristic h is consistent
(or satisfies the monotone restriction) if
for every node N and every successor N’
of N: N
c(N,N’)

N’ h(N)
h(N)  c(N,N’) + h(N’)
h(N’)

(triangular inequality)
 A consistent heuristic is admissible.
67
 IDA* Algorithm
 In the first iteration, we determine a “f-cost limit” – cut-
off value
f(n0) = g(n0) + h(n0) = h(n0), where n0 is the start node.

 We expand nodes using the depth-first algorithm and

backtrack whenever f(n) for an expanded node n exceeds
the cut-off value.

 If this search does not succeed, determine the lowest f-

value among the nodes that were visited but not expanded.

 Use this f-value as the new limit value – cut-off value and
do another depth-first search.

 Repeat this procedure until a goal node is found. 68

 f(N) = g(N) + h(N)
8-Puzzle with h(N) = number of misplaced tile

4
Cutoff=4

69
 f(N) = g(N) + h(N)
8-Puzzle with h(N) = number of misplaced tile

4
Cutoff=4 4

6 6

70
 f(N) = g(N) + h(N)
8-Puzzle with h(N) = number of misplaced tile

4
Cutoff=4 4 5

6 6

71
 f(N) = g(N) + h(N)
8-Puzzle with h(N) = number of misplaced tile

4
Cutoff=4 4 5

6 6

72
 f(N) = g(N) + h(N)
8-Puzzle with h(N) = number of misplaced tile

6 5

4
Cutoff=4 4 5

6 6

73
 f(N) = g(N) + h(N)
8-Puzzle with h(N) = number of misplaced tile

4
Cutoff=5

74
 f(N) = g(N) + h(N)
8-Puzzle with h(N) = number of misplaced tile

4
Cutoff=5 4

6 6

75
 f(N) = g(N) + h(N)
8-Puzzle with h(N) = number of misplaced tile

4
Cutoff=5 4 5

6 6

76
 f(N) = g(N) + h(N)
8-Puzzle with h(N) = number of misplaced tile

4
Cutoff=5 4 5

6 6

77
 f(N) = g(N) + h(N)
8-Puzzle with h(N) = number of misplaced tile

4 5
Cutoff=5 4 5

6 6

78
 f(N) = g(N) + h(N)
8-Puzzle with h(N) = number of misplaced tile

4 5 5
Cutoff=5 4 5

6 6

79
 f(N) = g(N) + h(N)
8-Puzzle with h(N) = number of misplaced tile

4 5 5
Cutoff=5 4 5

6 6

80
When to Use Search
Techniques
 The search space is small, and
 There are no other available techniques,
or
 It is not worth the effort to develop a
more efficient technique

 The search space is large, and

 There is no other available techniques,
and
 There exist “good” heuristics
81
 Conclusions
 Frustration with uninformed search led to the idea
of using domain specific knowledge in a search so
that one can intelligently explore only the relevant
part of the search space that has a good chance of
containing the goal state. These new techniques
are called informed (heuristic) search strategies.

 Even though heuristics improve the performance

of informed search algorithms, they are still time
consuming especially for large size instances.
82