SEIA3006-ROBOTICS &

AUTOMATION

UNIT II
ACCELEROMETERS
PROXIMITY SENSORS
MACHINE VISION SYSTEMS
Sensors
Sensors
Sensors
Sensors
 Accelerometers
An accelerometer is a device that measures the vibration, or acceleration of motion, of a structure.
The force caused by vibration or a change in motion (acceleration) causes the mass to “squeeze” the
piezoelectric material which produces an electrical charge that is proportional to the force exerted upon
it.
Since the charge is proportional to the force, and the mass is constant, then the charge is also
proportional to the acceleration
An accelerometer works by utilizing an electromechanical sensor that is designed to measure either
static or dynamic acceleration.
Static acceleration is the constant force acting on a body, like gravity or friction. These forces are
predictable and uniform to a large extent. For example, the acceleration due to gravity is constant at 9.8
m/s – and the gravitation force is almost the same at every point on Earth.

Dynamic acceleration forces are non-uniform, and the best example is vibration or shock. A car crash
is an excellent example of dynamic acceleration. Here, the acceleration change is sudden when
compared to its previous state. The theory behind accelerometers is that they can detect acceleration
and convert it into measurable quantities – like electrical signals.
 Types of Accelerometers

• Piezoelectric Accelerometers
• Piezo resistance Accelerometers
• Capacitive Accelerometers
• Triaxial Accelerometers
• MEMs Accelerometers
 Piezoelectric Accelerometers

• A piezoelectric accelerometer is a type of

accelerometer that works by sending an
electrical signal from the sensor when it
experiences a sudden acceleration. The
construction of a piezoelectric accelerometer
involves a sensing crystal to which a seismic
weight is attached.
• When the sensor experiences an acceleration,
the weight exerts a force on the crystal. The
piezoelectric crystal converts the force acting
upon it to electrical signals, which can be
measured to find the acceleration.
Piezoelectric accelerometers are highly
effective at measuring shocks and vibrations.
Piezoelectric Accelerometers

• The piezoelectric accelerometer produces an electrical

signal in the output proportional to the incident
acceleration. The working mechanism is based on the
piezoelectric effect, which converts mechanical motion
to a voltage signal.
• When the piezoelectric crystal (natural quartz crystal or
lead zirconate titanate (PZT)) of the sensor is deformed by
an external force (acceleration), it generates a certain
potential difference between its terminals that is
proportional to the force to which it is subjected
 Piezoresistance Accelerometers

• A piezoresistance - or piezoresistive - accelerometer is a type of

accelerometer that works by varying their resistance based on the
acceleration they experience. The change in acceleration can be
measured to understand the rate of acceleration experienced by the
sensor.
• Piezoresistive accelerometers are less sensitive than piezoelectric
accelerometers, as they are not best at measuring low-frequency
impacts. However, they work best at high amplitudes and find their
application in vehicle crash testing and weapons testing.
Piezoresistance Accelerometers
Piezoresistance Accelerometers
Piezoresistance Accelerometers
 Capacitive Accelerometers

• Capacitive sensors work by changing their capacitance

based on the acceleration they experience. Their
construction involves two capacitive plates and a
diaphragm. As the sensor experiences acceleration, the
diaphragm moves and changes the distance between
the capacitive plates.
• This results in the capacitance of the sensor to change,
and this change in capacitance can be measured and
translated to the rate of acceleration on the sensor.
Capacitive MEMS (microelectromechanical system)
accelerometers are used in most smartphones today.
 Capacitive Accelerometers
• The fundamental design of a capacitive accelerometer includes two fixed capacitor
plates and a seismic mass. The seismic mass is essentially a movable capacitor
plate suspended by a mechanical suspension system. The role of the seismic mass
is to induce a relative displacement in response to external acceleration.
1.Under zero acceleration conditions, the seismic mass stays in a neutral position,
maintaining an equal distance between both the fixed capacitor plates. This results
in equal capacitance for both sides.
2.When acceleration is applied, the seismic mass displaces from its original position
due to inertia. This causes an imbalance in the capacitive system, changing the
distance between the plates and therefore altering the capacitance.
3.The capacitance alteration is detected and converted into an electrical signal
proportional to the applied acceleration.
Capacitive Accelerometers
 Triaxial Accelerometers

A triaxial accelerometer is a type of accelerometer that

can measure acceleration in three orthogonal directions
(or the three perpendicular planes – X, Y, and Z).
This feature enables triaxial accelerometers to measure
all the vibration components affecting the object. A
triaxial accelerometer houses three sensing elements,
oriented perpendicular to each other. They find their use
in measuring building vibrations, turbines, and high-
speed machinery.
 Triaxial Accelerometers

• Triaxial accelerometers operate based on the principle of piezoelectricity,

capacitive sensing, or other sensing techniques. The core component of the
accelerometer is a sensing element that converts acceleration into an electrical
signal. This sensing element is often a piezoelectric material, which generates an
electric charge when subjected to mechanical stress (acceleration). Capacitive
accelerometers, on the other hand, measure the change in capacitance between
two parallel plates as a result of acceleration-induced displacement.
• The triaxial accelerometer consists of three separate sensing elements, each
measuring acceleration along one of the three orthogonal axes. The output
signals from each sensing element are then processed and combined to provide a
comprehensive representation of the acceleration experienced by the device in
all three dimensions.
Triaxial Accelerometers
 MEMs Accelerometer
• The rapid development of semiconductor microfabrication techniques made
possible the creation of devices composed of mechanical parts with
dimensions of up to a few micrometers .It led to the development of micro-
electro mechanical system (MEMS)accelerometers.
• These devices are characterized by their small size and low cost compared
with the piezoelectric accelerometers
• As a result, MEMS accelerometers are particularly attractive for vibration
monitoring in rotating structures. MEMS accelerometers can be implemented
based on piezoresistive or capacitive principles. Capacitive MEMS
accelerometers are less sensitive to thermal excitation, which enables
capacitance sensing to provide a wider operating temperature range
• Most of the MEMS accelerometers available in the market are capable of
measuring accelerations in three perpendicular directions simultaneously.
• MEMS accelerometers have been implemented and tested for vibration
measurement in a wide variety of machines, primarily because of their ease of
integration into IoT systems

•
MEMs Accelerometer Contd..
• The capacitive fingers are placed on both sides of the accelerometer. The
accelerometer design allows for lateral movement of the test mass. When the
sensor is at rest, the capacitance is equal on both sides of the test mass. When the
device is under the effect of acceleration in a given direction, the mass moves in
the opposite direction, so the capacitances formed between the fingers and the
fixed structure on both sides are different. The acceleration is measured by reading
the changes in the differential capacitance
.
 Uses of Accelerometers
• Accelerometers that have a high sensitivity are utilized in inertial navigation systems.
• To recognize and keep an eye on rotating machinery vibrations.
• To have photographs shown on digital camera screens in an upright orientation.
• For drone flight stabilization.
• Accelerometers are used to measure acceleration, shock, vibration, and orientation.
• Used by laptops and mobile devices to determine the device’s location.
• Biaxial and triaxial acceleration at high frequencies are recorded in biological applications to
distinguish between animal behavioral patterns.
• Checking the health of the equipment.
• To find rotator machine issues.
• These are also employed in structural and building monitoring to track the movement and vibration of
the building under dynamic loads.
• To evaluate the depth of chest compressions during CPR.
• Accelerometer sensors are used by navigation systems to determine direction.
Proximity Sensors
Light Reflection Method
 Capacitive proximity sensors
• Capacitive proximity sensors work by detecting changes
in capacitance between the sensor and an object.
Factors such as distance and the size of the object will
affect the amount of capacitance.
• As per the name, capacitive proximity sensors operate
by noting a change in the capacitance read by the
sensor.
 Working Principle of Capacitive Proximity Sensor
• The capacitive proximity sensor consist a high-
frequency oscillator along with a sensing surface
formed by two metal electrodes. When an object
comes near the sensing surface, it enters the
electrostatic field of the electrodes and changes the
capacitance of the oscillator.

As a result, the oscillator circuit starts oscillating and changes the

output state of the sensor when it reaches certain amplitude. As
the object moves away from the sensor, the oscillator’s amplitude
decreases, switching the sensor back to its initial state.
Capacitive proximity sensors
 Capacitive proximity sensors
• When dealing with non-conductive targets there are
three factors that determine the sensing distance.
• The size of the active surface of the sensor – the larger
the sensing face the longer the sensing distance
• The capacitive material properties of the target object,
also referred to as the dielectric constant – the higher
the constant the longer the sensing distance
• The surface area of the target object to be sensed – the
larger the surface area the longer the sensing distance
 Inductive proximity sensors
• Inductive proximity sensors operate on the principle
of electromagnetic induction, which is the process of
inducing an electrical current in a conductor by subjecting it to
a changing magnetic field. When a metallic object comes
within the sensing range of the sensor, the magnetic field
induces eddy currents in the object.
• These eddy currents, in turn, generate a secondary magnetic
field that opposes the original magnetic field created by the
sensor. This interaction leads to a change in the sensor’s
oscillator amplitude, which is detected by the sensor’s internal
circuitry and produces an output signal, indicating the
presence of the metallic object.
 Inductive proximity sensors

Standard Inductive Proximity Sensors: These are

the most common type of inductive sensors and consist
of a coil, an oscillator, and a signal processing circuit.
The oscillator generates a high-frequency
electromagnetic field, which is emitted by the coil. The
signal processing circuit detects changes in the oscillator
amplitude and produces an output signal when a
metallic object is within the sensing range.
Inductive proximity sensors
Coil
The coil generates the necessary electromagnetic
field. Cup-shaped ferrite magnetic core holds the coil
inside. The cup-shaped core is necessary to
concentrate the coil magnetic field on the front area of
the sensor.
Oscillator
The oscillator is generally an LC oscillator. It produces
radio frequency (100 kHz to 1 MHz) which helps to
generate an electromagnetic field.
Trigger Circuit
The trigger circuit senses the change in amplitude of
oscillation and gives the signal to solid-state output.
Output Circuit
The output circuit has a transistor NPN or PNP. After
receiving the gate signal, the transistor switches ON
and gives an output.
Inductive proximity sensors
When a metal target enters the magnetic field
created by coil, eddy current circulates within the
target. This causes load on the sensor which
decreases the oscillator’s amplitude. As the target
reaches close to the sensor further the oscillator’s
amplitude decreases.

The trigger circuit is normally a Schmitt trigger. It

monitors the amplitude of an oscillator. If the
oscillator’s amplitude reaches a predetermined
level, the trigger circuit gives the signal to the
output circuit to switch-ON the output.
Inductive proximity sensors
 Hall Effect Proximity Sensor
• The Hall Effect occurs when a magnetic field is applied perpendicular to the
direction of the electric current in a conductor. As a result, the electrons in
the conductor are deflected to one side, creating an electric field called the
“Hall field. This field generates a voltage known as the “Hall voltage,” which
is proportional to the strength of the magnetic field and the current flowing
through the conductor.
• Hall Effect Proximity Sensor is a type of non-contact sensor that detects the
presence of a magnetic object by measuring the Hall voltage generated by
the object’s magnetic field. The sensor is made up of three primary
components: a Hall Effect sensor element, a signal processing circuit, and a
switching element.
• Hall effect proximity sensors are used to detect the proximity, presence or
absence of a magnetic object using a critical distance. They function via an
electrical potential that is developed across an axis transverse to an applied
current flow in the presence of a magnetic field.
Hall Effect Proximity Sensor
 Hall Effect Proximity Sensor
• Hall effect sensors primarily consist of a thin piece of
rectangular semiconductor. The semiconductor is often made
of gallium arsenide (GaAs), indium arsenide (InAs), or indium
antimonide (InSb).
• A continuous current is allowed to pass through this conductor
at all times. When a magnet is placed close to this thin
semiconductor, it disrupts the current flow by deflecting the
charge carriers in the semiconductor.
• This phenomenon causes a voltage difference to build up,
perpendicular to the flow of current and across the
semiconductor. This is shown in the picture as positive and
negative charges.
 Hall Effect Proximity Sensor
• This voltage is called Hall voltage, named after the
physicist Edwin Herbert Hall who discovered it. To
generate a measurable voltage difference, the magnet
must be:
• Magnetic flux lines should be perpendicular
• The pole towards the sensor should have the correct
polarity. This is often the south pole of the magnet.
• Hall sensors have a typical operating range of about 0-
40mm. However, this is also directly dependent on the
magnetic flux density of the object.
 Range Sensors
• Range sensors are commonly used for mobile robots in
order to avoid collision with obstacles and build an
environmental map.
Triangulation Method
Triangulation Method
Triangulation Method
Robotic Vision
Introduction to Robotic Vision
Introduction to Robotic Vision
Diffuse, or full bright field lighting, is most commonly used on shiny specular or mixed reflectivity
samples where even but multidirectional light is needed. Several implementations of diffuse lighting are
generally available, but there are three primary types with hemispherical dome/cylinder or on-axis
being the most common.
Diffuse dome lights are effective at lighting curved, specular surfaces, commonly found in the
automotive industry, for example. On-axis lights work in a similar fashion for flat samples and are
particularly effective at enhancing differentially angled, textured, or topographic features on
relatively flat objects. To be effective, diffuse lights, particularly dome varieties, require close proximity to
the sample. A useful property of axial diffuse lighting is that in this case, rather than rejecting or avoiding
specular glare, you may actually take advantage of the glare if it can be isolated specifically to uniquely
define the feature(s) of interest required for a consistent and robust inspection .
 Backlighting

Back lighting generates instant contrast as it creates dark

silhouettes against a bright background . The most common uses are
for detecting the presence/absence of holes and gaps, part placing
or orientating, or measuring objects. Often it is useful to use a
monochrome light, such as red, green, or blue, with light control
polarization if precise (subpixel) edge detection becomes necessary.
 Structured Light Imaging
• Structured Light Imaging captures the 3-dimensional topography of a surface using
specific, (often modulating) patterns of light, and a 2D imaging camera. One well-
known example of a structured light system is the Microsoft Kinect.
• The concept is quite simple: a known pattern is projected onto a surface. When the
camera views the pattern from one (or more) different perspectives, the surface
features of the target distort the pattern, as shown in Figure. The direction and size of
the pattern distortions are used to reconstruct the surface topography of the target
object.
 Partial Bright Field or
Directional Lighting
Partial bright field lighting is the most commonly used vision lighting technique, and is the most
familiar lighting used every day, including sunlight. This type of lighting is distinguished from full
bright field in that it is directional, typically from a point source and, because of its directional nature,
it is a good choice for generating contrast and enhancing topographic detail. It is much less effective,
however when used on-axis with specular surfaces, generating the familiar “hotspot” reflection.
Industrial Applications of Vision -
Controlled Robotic Systems
Industrial Applications of Vision -
Controlled Robotic Systems
Industrial Applications of Vision -
Controlled Robotic Systems
Industrial Applications of Vision -
Controlled Robotic Systems