T.J.

S ENGINEERING COLLEGE
GE3791 & HUMAN VALUES AND
ETHICS

UNIT III SCIENTIFIC VALUES

Prepared by
Mr.M.Prakash, AP/MECH
 UNIT III SCIENTIFIC VALUES

Scientific thinking and method: Inductive and Deductive

thinking, Proposing and testing Hypothesis, Validating facts
using evidence-based approach – Skepticism and Empiricism
– Rationalism and Scientific Temper.
 INTRODUCTION

 Scientific values are the principles and standards that guide the conduct of
scientific research and inquiry.
 These values are crucial because they help ensure that the scientific process
remains objective, reliable, and ethical.
Some key scientific values include:
 Honesty and integrity - being truthful in conducting
research and reporting findings
 Objectivity - striving for unbiased, impartial observations
and conclusions
 Openness - sharing data, methods, and findings openly with
the scientific community
 Skepticism - questioning claims and subjecting them to rigorous
testing
 Accountability - taking responsibility for one's work and its
consequences
 Respect for subjects - protecting the rights and welfare of
human and animal research subjects
 SCIENTIFIC THINKING

 Scientific thinking involves approaching problems or questions with a mindset that

values evidence, logic, and objectivity.
 It is used to investigate natural phenomena and relies on several key principles.
Goal:
 To arrive at conclusions that
are supported by data and to
develop explanations (theories)
that predict and explain how
things work.
 SCIENTIFIC THINKING

Key Principles of Scientific Thinking:

 Critical thinking: Questioning assumptions and analyzing information from all
perspectives.
 Logic: Using sound reasoning to make connections between ideas and data.
 Curiosity: Seeking explanations for how and why things happen.
 Skepticism: Not accepting claims without sufficient evidence.
 Open-mindedness: Willingness to accept new ideas and revise old ones based on
new evidence.
 SCIENTIFIC THINKING
 The scientific method is a structured approach to inquiry that allows scientists to
develop, test, and refine theories about how the world works.
 SCIENTIFIC THINKING
Steps in the Scientific Method:
 Observation: Observe and gather data about a phenomenon. This step often leads to
questions that need answers.
Example: Noticing that plants grow faster in sunlight than in shade.
 Question: Based on observations, formulate a specific question.
Example: Does sunlight affect plant growth?
 Hypothesis: Develop a hypothesis, which is a testable and falsifiable prediction.
Example: "If a plant receives more sunlight, then it will grow taller."
 SCIENTIFIC THINKING

 Experiment: Design and conduct an experiment to test the hypothesis. This involves
manipulating one or more variables while controlling others.
Example: Set up two groups of plants, one exposed to sunlight and one in shade, and
measure their growth over time.
 Data Collection and Analysis: Collect data during the experiment and analyze it
using statistical methods.
Example: Measure the height of plants in both groups and compare the averages.
 SCIENTIFIC THINKING

 Conclusion: Based on the analysis, determine whether the data supports or refutes
the hypothesis.
Example: If the plants in sunlight grew taller, the hypothesis is supported. Report
 Results: Share findings with the scientific community for review and further testing.
This ensures transparency and allows others to verify or challenge the results.
 Further Testing: If the hypothesis is supported, it may be refined and tested further. If
refuted, a new hypothesis may be formed, or the experiment may be redesigned.
 INDUCTIVE AND DEDUCTIVE THINKING
 Inductive and deductive thinking are two fundamental approaches to reasoning that
play a crucial role in the scientific method and in logical reasoning more broadly.
 INDUCTIVE THINKING
 Inductive thinking involves drawing general conclusions from specific observations
or instances.
 It is a "bottom-up" approach to reasoning, where you start with specific data points
and move towards a broader generalization or theory.
Process:
 Observation: Gather specific observations or data.
 Pattern: Identify patterns or regularities in the observations.
 Hypothesis: Formulate a general hypothesis or theory based on the patterns.
 Generalization: Draw a broader conclusion that applies to all similar cases.
 INDUCTIVE THINKING
 Strengths:
 Flexibility: Inductive reasoning allows for new ideas and theories to emerge from
the data.
 Adaptability: It can adapt to new information, leading to refined or revised
conclusions.
 Limitations:
 Uncertainty: Inductive conclusions are probabilistic, meaning they can be strong
but not guaranteed. A single counterexample can disprove the generalization.
 Bias: There’s a risk of jumping to conclusions based on limited or non-
representative data.
 DEDUCTIVE THINKING

 Deductive thinking involves drawing specific conclusions based on general premises

or theories. It is a "top-down" approach to reasoning, where you start with a general
statement or hypothesis and apply it to specific cases.
 Process:
 Premise: Start with a general premise or theory that is accepted as true.
 Application: Apply the premise to a specific case.
 Conclusion: Draw a specific conclusion based on the premise.
 DEDUCTIVE THINKING
 Strengths:
 Certainty: If the premises are true and the reasoning is valid, the conclusion must
also be true.
 Clarity: Deductive reasoning is clear and logical, providing a strong foundation for
arguments.
 Limitations:
 Dependency on Premises: The validity of the conclusion entirely depends on the
truth of the premises. If a premise is flawed, the conclusion will also be flawed.
 Limited Scope: Deductive reasoning does not generate new knowledge but rather
applies existing knowledge to specific situations.
 PROPOSING AND TESTING HYPOTHESIS
 Proposing and testing a hypothesis are central steps in the scientific method,
enabling scientists to explore and explain natural phenomena.

HYPOTHESIS
A hypothesis is a tentative explanation or prediction that can be tested through
experimentation and observation. It is an educated guess based on existing
knowledge, observations, or theories.
 Characteristics of a Good Hypothesis:
 Testable: The hypothesis must be framed in a way that allows it to be tested
through experiments or observations.
 Falsifiable: There must be a possibility to prove the hypothesis wrong. If a
hypothesis cannot be disproven, it is not considered scientific.
 Specific: The hypothesis should be clear and focused, addressing a specific
question or problem.
 Based on Prior Knowledge: A good hypothesis is grounded in existing theories,
observations, or previous research.
 PROPOSING HYPOTHESIS
 Identify a Research Question:
 Start with a question based on observations or existing knowledge. For example, "Does
light intensity affect plant growth?“
 Conduct Background Research: Review existing literature and studies to understand what is
already known about the topic.
 Formulate the Hypothesis: Based on the research question and background knowledge,
propose a hypothesis that offers a possible explanation or prediction.
 Example: "If a plant receives more light, then it will grow taller because light is a key factor
in photosynthesis.“
 State the Hypothesis Clearly: Express the hypothesis in a clear and concise statement that
can be easily tested.
 Example: "Increasing light intensity will result in increased plant height."
 TESTING HYPOTHESIS
 Once a hypothesis is proposed, scientists design experiments or studies to test it
empirically.
 These experiments are carefully planned to control variables, eliminate bias and
ensure reliable results.
 Design an experiment where one variable is manipulated (independent variable) while
all other variables are kept constant (controlled variables).
 Example: To test the hypothesis about light intensity and plant growth:
 Independent Variable: Light intensity.
 Dependent Variable: Plant height.
 Controlled Variables: Type of plant, soil, water, temperature, etc.
 TESTING HYPOTHESIS
 Steps in Testing the Hypothesis:
 Prepare Materials and Procedures:
 Gather all necessary materials and outline the procedures to be followed.
Ensure the experiment is repeatable.
 Conduct the Experiment:
 Perform the experiment, carefully manipulating the independent variable and
recording the effects on the dependent variable.
 Collect Data:
 Record observations and measurements systematically. The data collected
should be precise and unbiased.
 TESTING HYPOTHESIS

 Analyze the Data:

 Use statistical methods or other analytical tools to examine the data. Determine
whether the results support or refute the hypothesis.
 Draw a Conclusion:
 Based on the data analysis, conclude whether the hypothesis was supported or
rejected.
 Example: If plants exposed to higher light intensity indeed grew taller, the
hypothesis is supported. If not, the hypothesis is rejected.
 REPORTING AND REFINING THE HYPOTHESIS
 Reporting Results:
 Transparency: Share the results with the scientific community through research
papers, presentations, or discussions.
 Peer Review: Allow other scientists to review and critique the findings, which helps
validate the results.
 Refining the Hypothesis:
 Supported Hypothesis: If the hypothesis is supported by the data, it may be refined
and tested further to explore related questions.
 Rejected Hypothesis: If the hypothesis is not supported, it may be revised based on
new insights or replaced with an alternative hypothesis.
 IMPORTANCE OF TESTING HYPOTHESES
 Advances Knowledge:
 Testing hypotheses is fundamental to advancing scientific knowledge. It allows
scientists to move from speculation to evidence-based conclusions.
 Promotes Critical Thinking:
 It encourages critical evaluation of ideas and helps ensure that scientific
conclusions are based on robust and reproducible evidence.
 Builds Theories:
 Supported hypotheses can contribute to the development of broader theories
that explain a wide range of phenomena.
 VALIDATING FACTS USING EVIDENCE-BASED APPROACH
 It is a cornerstone of scientific inquiry and critical thinking.
 This process involves gathering and analyzing empirical evidence to confirm the accuracy of a claim,
hypothesis, or theory.
 By relying on observable, measurable, and repeatable data, scientists and researchers ensure that their
conclusions are grounded in reality and not influenced by biases, assumptions, or unfounded beliefs.
 EVIDENCE-BASED VALIDATION
 Evidence-based validation is the process of confirming the truth of a claim, hypothesis,
or theory through empirical evidence. It involves collecting, analyzing, and interpreting
data to determine whether the evidence supports or refutes the claim.
 Key Components of Evidence-Based Validation:
 Empirical Evidence: Information obtained through observation, experimentation, or
measurement.
 Scientific Method: A structured approach to inquiry that relies on forming
hypotheses, conducting experiments, and analyzing results to draw conclusions.
 Reproducibility: The ability of other researchers to replicate the findings using the
same methods, ensuring the results are reliable and not due to chance.
 VALIDATING FACTS – KEY STEPS
 Validating facts using an evidence-based approach is a systematic process that involves
several key steps.
1. Formulating a Clear and Testable Hypothesis
 Start with a specific claim or hypothesis that can be tested through observation
or experimentation.
2. Designing the Study or Experiment
 Plan a method to collect data that will accurately test the hypothesis.
3. Gathering Evidence
 Collect data systematically and accurately to test the hypothesis.
 VALIDATING FACTS – KEY STEPS
4. Analyzing the Data
 Interpret the collected data to determine if it supports or refutes the hypothesis.
5. Drawing Conclusions
 Decide whether the evidence supports or refutes the hypothesis based on the analysis.
6. Peer Review and Publication
 Submit the findings for evaluation by other experts to ensure the validity and reliability
of the research.
7. Reproduction and Further Validation
 Encourage replication of the study by other researchers to confirm the findings.
8. Applying the Findings
 Use validated facts to inform decision-making, policy, or further research.
 SKEPTICISM AND EMPIRICISM
 Skepticism and Empiricism are two fundamental concepts in the philosophy of
science that play crucial roles in the development and validation of knowledge.
 Both are essential for ensuring that our understanding of the world is based on
evidence and critical thinking rather than assumptions, biases, or unverified beliefs.
 SKEPTICISM
 Skepticism is the practice of questioning the validity of claims, seeking evidence
before accepting them as true.
 It involves a critical examination of arguments, methodologies, and evidence, with a
focus on avoiding error and deception.
 Role in Science
 Critical Inquiry: Skepticism encourages scientists and thinkers to critically
evaluate ideas, theories, and data.
 Avoiding Dogmatism: By questioning established beliefs and theories, skepticism
helps avoid dogmatism—an unquestioning acceptance of ideas without sufficient
evidence.
 Falsifiability: It is a hypothesis must be structured in a way that it can be tested
and potentially disproven.
 SKEPTICISM
 Types of Skepticism
 Philosophical Skepticism: Questions the possibility of certain
knowledge, emphasizing the limits of human understanding and the
need for continual inquiry.
 Scientific Skepticism: Focuses on questioning the reliability of
empirical claims, requiring rigorous testing, evidence, and peer
review before accepting scientific conclusions.
 Practical Applications
 Debunking Myths and Pseudoscience
 Quality Control in Research
 EMPIRICISM

 Empiricism is the theory that all knowledge is derived from sensory experience.
 Role in Science
 Foundation of the Scientific Method: Empiricism is the cornerstone of the
scientific method, which relies on observation, experimentation, and evidence to
develop and test theories.
 Empirical Data: Empirical data refers to information obtained through direct
observation or experimentation.
 Rejection of Innate Ideas: Empiricism challenges the notion that knowledge is
innate or comes from intuition alone.
 EMPIRICISM
 Types of Empiricism
 Classical Empiricism: Originating with philosophers like John Locke, who argued
that the mind starts as a "blank slate" and all knowledge comes from experience.
 Scientific Empiricism: Focuses on collecting and analyzing empirical data to build
and validate scientific theories. It involves controlled experiments, systematic
observation, and the use of instruments to gather data.
 Practical Applications
 Developing Scientific Theories
 Medical Research
 Technology and Engineering
 RATIONALISM AND SCIENTIFIC TEMPER
 Rationalism and scientific temper are closely related concepts that
emphasize the importance of reason, logic, and empirical evidence in
understanding the world.
 RATIONALISM
 Rationalism is a philosophical approach that emphasizes the role of reason in acquiring
knowledge.
 Rationalists believe that reason alone, without relying on sensory experience, can lead to
true knowledge.
 Key principles of rationalism include:
 Innate ideas: Humans are born with certain innate ideas or concepts that are not
derived from experience.
 Deductive reasoning: Knowledge is acquired through deductive reasoning, starting
from self-evident truths or axioms.
 Skepticism of sensory experience: Sensory experience can be unreliable, so
knowledge should not be based solely on empirical observation.
 SCIENTIFIC TEMPER
 Scientific temper, a term popularized by Jawaharlal Nehru, refers to a rational,
logical, and scientific approach to life. It involves:
 Questioning and skepticism: Accepting claims only after critical examination and
empirical verification.
 Openness to evidence: Willingness to change one's beliefs based on new
evidence.
 Objectivity: Striving for impartiality and avoiding biases in evaluating ideas.
 Empiricism: Relying on empirical evidence and the scientific method to acquire
knowledge.
 RATIONALISM IN SCIENCE
 While scientific temper emphasizes empiricism, rationalism also
plays a role in scientific thinking:
 Formulating hypotheses: Scientists use reason to propose
hypotheses that can explain observed phenomena.
 Deductive reasoning: Scientists employ deductive reasoning to
derive testable predictions from their hypotheses.
 Mathematical models: Many scientific theories rely on
mathematical models that are derived through rational analysis
of empirical data.