Internal Combustion Engine

Chapter 2
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 Contents

Chapter 2.
Operating Characteristics

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 Engine Parameters

S = 2a

Average piston speed is : UP = 2SN

B = bore
S = stroke length
a = Crank offset
r = connecting rod length
Θ = crank angle
N = RPM
UP = m/sec (ft/sec)
B, a, S = m or cm (ft or in)
Fig. 1) For an engine with bore B

Average piston speed is normally in the range of 5 ~ 20 m/sec .

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 Engine Parameters
Distance between the crank axis and wrist pin axis

s a cos   r 2  a 2 sin 2 
a = crank offset
r = connecting rod length
θ = crank angle

When s is differentiated with

respect to time, the instantaneous
piston speed Up is obtained :

U p ds / dt ds / d d / dt Fig. 2) The effect of R on piston speed

U p / U p ( / 2) sin [1 (cos  / R 2  sin2  ]

R = r / a = connecting rod length / crank offset
R has values of 3~4 for small engines,
increasing to 5~10 for the largest engines.
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 Engine Parameters
U p ds / dt ds / d d / dt
1
1 2 
[ a sin   (r  a sin  ) 2 ( 2a 2 sin  cos  )] 2N
2 2

2
U p /U p
1
1 2 
[ a sin   (r  a sin  ) 2 ( 2a 2 sin  cos  )] 2N / 2 SN
2 2

2
1
1 
[ a sin 2   (r 2  a 2 sin 2  ) 2 ( 2a 2 sin  cos  )]  / 2a
2
 1   a sin  cos 
 sin   ( a sin  cos  )  sin  
2 2 (r 2  a 2 sin 2  ) 2 2 (r 2  a 2 sin 2  )
 a cos   cos 
( ) sin  (1  ) ( ) sin  (1  )
2 r2 2 r2
a2 ( 2
 sin 2
) ( 2
 sin 2
)
a a

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 Engine Parameters

Displacement :
Vd VBDC  VTDC
Vd ( / 4) B 2 S
Vd  N c ( / 4) B 2 S
B = cylinder bore
S = stroke
Nc = number of engine cylinders
1L = 10-3 m3 = 103 cm3 =61.2 in3

Vc : when the piston is at TDC, minimum cylinder volume occurs

Vc VTDC
VBDC Vc  Vd
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 Engine Parameters

Compression ratio :
rc VBDC / VTDC (Vc  Vd ) / Vc

Spark Ignition : 8-11,

Compression ignition : 12-24

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 Engine Parameters

Cox air-cooled, single cylinder, two-stroke cycle

model airplane engine. Engine has displacement
of 0.01 cubic inches(0.164cm3)

Fairbanks Morse 10 cylinder PC4.2 diesel

ship engine of producing over 8000 break
horsepower(5970kW).
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 Engine Parameters

The cylinder volume V at any crank angle is :

V Vc  (B 2 / 4)( r  a  s )

Vc = clearance volume
B = bore
r = connection rod length
a = crank offset
s = piston position

In a non-dimensional form by dividing by Vc

V /Vc 1 21 ((rc  1)[R  1 cos   R 2  sin2  ]

rc = compression ratio
R = r/a
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 Engine Parameters

V Vc  (B 2 / 4)( r  a  s ) (V / 2a )( r  a  a cos   r 2  a 2 sin 2  )

 1  d
Vc Vc Vc
(V  Vc )( r  a  a cos   r 2  a 2 sin 2  ) r  a  a cos   r 2
 a 2
sin 2

1  1  12 {(rc  1)( )}
Vc 2a a
r a a cos  r 2  a 2 sin 2 
1  (( rc  1)(  
1
2  )) 1  12 (( rc  1)[ R  1  cos   R 2  sin 2  ]
a a a a

S 2a
s a cos   r 2  a 2 sin 
VBDC Vc  Vd

rc VBDC / VTDC (Vc  Vd ) / Vc

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 Engine Parameters

Flat –topped piston

AP ( / 4) B 2

Combustion Chamber surface Area :

A  Ach  AP  B (r  a  s )
r  a  a cos   r 2  a 2 sin 2 
B (r  a  s ) Ba( )
a
BS / 2[ R  1  cos   R 2  sin 2  ]
A  Ach  AP  (BS / 2)[ R  1  cos   R 2  sin 2  ]

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Example Problem 1

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Example Problem 1

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 Work
• the output of any heat engine generated by the gases in the
combustion chamber of the cylinder results of a force acting
through a distance

W Fdx PA p dx Ap dx dV W PdV

P = pressure in combustion chamber
Ap = area against which the pressure acts (i.e., the piston face)
x = distance the piston moves

• Because engines are often multi-cylinder, it is convenient to

analyze engine cycles per unit mass of gas m within the cylinder

w W / m, v V / m w pdv
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 Work
Indicated work : the areas shown in Fig give the work inside the
combustion chamber.
brake work : work delivered by the crankshaft is less than indicated work
due to mechanical friction and parasitic loads of the engine.
wb wi  w f
wi = indicated specific work generated inside combustion chamber
wf = specific work lost due to friction and parasitic loads

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 Work

Wide Open throttle Part throttle

- gross indicated work: the compression and power strokes(A+C)

- pump work: the intake and exhaust strokes(B+C)

wnet wgross  w pump

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 Work

2002 General Motors L47 Oldsmobile engine. the ignition 90` V8

engine has a displacement of 4.0L and produces 250hp(186kW)
of brake power.

power and torque curves of General Motors L47 Aurora engine shown in fig.7 In stock
form the engine produces a maximum brake power of 250hp at 5600RPM (186kW), and
maximum torque of 260 lbf-ft at 4400RPM(352N-m). In modified racing form this engine
produced 675hp(503kW), and generated a phenomenal record in the Indy Racing
League(IRL) during the years 1997-2001. Race cars with this engine had the pole
position in 51 out of 51 races and it won 49 of these races including 5 out of 5 of the
Indianapolis 500 races. It had the fastest lap in 31 consecutive IRL races.
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 Work
Wpump is negative for engines without superchargers.

wnet ( Area A)  ( Area B )

Engines with superchargers or turbochargers can have intake
pressure greater than exhaust pressure, giving a positive pump
work.
wnet ( Area A)  ( Area B )
Four-stroke cycle of typical SI
engine plotted on P-v
coordinates at (a) wide open
throttle, and (b) part throttle. The
upper loop consists of the
compression stroke and power
stroke and the area represents
gross indicated work. The lower
loop represents negative work of
the intake stroke and exhaust
stroke. This is called indicated
pump work.

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 Work
Mechanical efficiency :
the ratio of brake work at the crankshaft to indicated work in
the combustion chamber.
 m wb / wi Wb / Wi

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 Mean Effective pressure
Mean Effective Pressure(MEP) :
a good parameter to compare engines for design or output
because it is independent of engine size and/or speed.
w (mep)v
mep w/v W / Vd
v vBD C  vTDC
W = work of one cycle
w = specific work of one cycle
Vd = displacement volume

- indicated mean effective pressure imep wi /v

- brake mean effective pressure bmep wb /v
- pump mean effective pressure pmep wpump /v
- friction mean effective pressure fmep w f /v
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 Torque and Power
Torque is a good indicator of an engine`s ability to do work.
2 Wb (bmep) Vd / n
N
W 2N (bmep) Vd 
n
Wb = brake work of one revolution
Vd = displacement volume
n = number of revolutions per cycle

For a two-stroke cycle engine with on cycle foe each revolution:

 (bmep ) Vd / 2

For a four-stroke cycle engine with on cycle foe each revolution:

 (bmep ) Vd / 4

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 Torque and Power

MBT :
maximum brake torque speed

W WN / n W 2N

W (2 / 2n)( mep) Ap U p

MBT
W (mep) Ap U p / 4 (four-stroke cycle)

W (mep) Ap U p / 2 (two-stroke cycle)

W = work per cycle

Ap = piston face area of all pistons
Up = average piston speed

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 Torque and Power

Wb mWi W = brake power

Ap = piston face area of all piston
(Wi )net (Wi )gross  (Wi )pump Vd = displacement volume

Wb Wi  Wf

(specific power) SP = Wb/Ap

(output per displacement) OPD = W
b
/V
 d
(specific volume) SV = Vd / Wb b
(specific weight) SW = (engine weight)/
W

1 hp = 0.7457 kW = 2545 BTU/hr = 550 ft-lbf/sec

1 kW = 1.341 hp

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 Dynamometers
• hydraulic dynamometer absorb
engine energy in water or oil pumped
through orifices or dissipated with
viscous losses in a rotor-stator
combination. For the largest of
engines.

• Eddy current dynamometer use a

disk, driven by the engine being
tested, rotating in a magnetic field of
controlled strength.

• Electric dynamometer absorbs

energy with electrical output from a
connected generator. D.C type, A.C
type power and torque curves of
Briggs&Stratton Vanguard
700D CI engine
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Dynamometers

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Example Problem 2

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Example Problem 2

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Example Problem 2

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Example Problem 3

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Example Problem 3

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 Air-Fuel Ratio and Fuel-Air Ratio
For combustion reaction to occur, the proper relative amounts
of air and fuel must be present
 /m ma  mass of air m f  mass of fuel
AF m / m m
a f a f
m a  mass flow rate of air
f /m
FA mf / ma m a m f  mass flow rate of fuel

• for SI engine: in the range of 12-18

• for CI engine: in the range of 18-70

Equivalence ratio
 ( FA ) act /( FA ) stoich ( AF ) stoich /( AF ) act
(Ø>1 = Rich, Ø<1 = Lean)

Relative air/fuel ratio

   1 ( FA ) stoich /( FA ) act ( AF ) act /( AF ) stoich
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 Air-Fuel Ratio and Fuel-Air Ratio

Cummins ASK60-2700 sixteen-cylinder,

four-stroke cycle, CI, V16 engone of
60.2 liter displacement.

Power and torque curves for Cummins QSK60-2700 engine. Engine has maximum
power of 2013kW at 1900RPM, and maximum torque of 10623N-m atS1500RPM.
mart Powertrain Lab.
 Specific Fuel Consumption
- specific fuel consumption
sfc m f / W
m f rate of fuel into engine
W engine power

- brake fuel consumption

bsfc m f / W b

- indicated specific fuel consumption

isfc m f / W i

- mechanical efficiency of engine

 m W b / W i (m f / W i ) /( m f / W b ) isfc/bsfc
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 Specific Fuel Consumption

Fuel consumption increases at high speed because of greater

friction losses. at low engine speed, the longer time per cycle
allows more heat loss and fuel consumption goes up.

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 Friction-Chen-flynn
• Engine –Friction ; Chen-Flynn 마찰 관계식 적용
* FMEP=A+B*(Pmax)+C*(rpm*stroke/2)+Q*(rpm*stroke/2)2
The correlation has a constant term (for accessory friction), a term which varies
with peak cylinder pressure, a third term linearly dependent on mean piston
velocity (for hydrodynamic friction) and a fourth term quadratic with mean piston
velocity

ACF [Bar] 0.3 -> 0.2

BCF 0.004

CCF [Pa/min*m] 325 -> 225

QCF [Pa/min2*m2] 0.2 -> 0.1

where FMEP is the friction mean effective pressure, Pmax is the maximum cylinder
pressure, RPM is the engine speed, STROKE is the cylinder stroke and A, B, C and D
are constants.
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 Specific Fuel Consumption

A bsfc decreases with higher compression ratio due to higher

thermal efficiency. It is lowest when combustion occurs in a
mixture with a fuel equivalence ratio near one(Φ=1)
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Specific Fuel Consumption

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 Engine Efficiencies

Combustion efficiency :
account for the fraction of fuel which burns
Qin m f QHV  c , Q in m f QHV  c

Thermal efficiency
t W / Qin W / m f QHV c  f / c

W work of one cycle

 power
W
m f mass of fuel for one cycle
 f mass flow rate of fuel
m
Q HV heating valueof fuel
f fuel conversionefficiency

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 Engine Efficiencies

Mechanical efficiency
(t ) b
m 
(t ) i
The indicated thermal efficiencies is in the range of 50 to 60%,
with brake thermal efficiency about 30%.

Fuel conversion efficiency

W W 1
f   
m f QHV m f QHV (sfc )QHV

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 Volumetric Efficiency
-Volume Efficiency
One of the most important processes that governs how much power
and performance can be obtained from an engine is getting the
maximum amount of air into the cylinder during each cycle.

ma nm a
 v 
 aVd  aVd N

ma mass of air into the enginefor one cycle

 a steady - state flow of air into the engine
m
 a air density evaluatedat atmospheric conditionsoutside the engine
Vd displacement volume
N enginespeed
n numberof revolutions per cycle
P0 = 101kPa =14.7psia = pressure of surrounding air
T0 = 298K = 25℃ = temperature of surrounding air
ρa = P0/RT0 (R=0.287kJ/kgK)

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Volumetric Efficiency

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Example Problem 4

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Example Problem 4

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 Engine Specific Weight and Volume

• Total engine weight and volume are very important for pack-
aging and cost considerations.
• The terms specific engine weight and specific engine volume
are used to compare engines of similar power outputs, but
having different sizes and weights.

Engine volume
specific volume =
Rated power

Engine weight
specific weight =
Rated power

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 Emissions
• The four main engine Exhaust emission : Nitrogen(NOx),
Carbon Monoxide(CO), Hydrocarbon(HC) and Solid Particu-
late(part)
• Specific Emissions : g/kW-hr
(SE ) NOx m NOx / W b
(SE ) m / W
CO CO b

(SE ) HC m HC / W b
(SE ) m / W
part part b

• Emission Index: emission flow per fuel flow

(EI) NOx m NOx [gm / sec] / m f [kg / sec]
(EI) CO m CO [gm / sec] / m f [kg / sec]
(EI) HC m HC [gm / sec] / m f [kg / sec]
(EI) part m part [gm / sec] / m f [kg / sec]

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Example Problem 5

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Example Problem 5

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Example Problem 6

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