 To speak of “Byzantine Art” is a bit problematic, since the

Byzantine empire and its art spanned more than a millennium and
penetrated geographic regions far from its capital in
Constantinople. Thus, Byzantine art includes work created from
the fourth century to the fifteenth century and encompassing parts
of the Italian peninsula, the eastern edge of the Slavic world, the
Middle East, and North Africa. So what is Byzantine art, and what
do we mean when we use this term?
 It’s helpful to know that Byzantine art is generally divided up into
three distinct periods:
 Early Byzantine (c. 330–750)
 Middle Byzantine (c. 850–1204)
 Late Byzantine (c. 1261–1453)
EARLY BYZANTINE (C. 330–750)

 The Emperor Constantine adopted Christianity and in 330 moved his capital from Rome to
Constantinople (modern-day Istanbul), at the eastern frontier of the Roman Empire.
Christianity flourished and gradually supplanted the Greco-Roman gods that had once
defined Roman religion and culture. This religious shift dramatically affected the art that
was created across the empire.
 The earliest Christian churches were built during this period, including the famed Hagia
Sophia (above), which was built in the sixth century under Emperor Justinian. Decorations
for the interior of churches, including icons and mosaics, were also made during this period.
Icons, such as the Virgin (Theotokos) and Child between Saints Theodore and George (left),
served as tools for the faithful to access the spiritual world—they served as spiritual
gateways.
 Similarly, mosaics, such as those within the Church of San Vitale in Ravenna, sought to
evoke the heavenly realm. In this work, ethereal figures seem to float against a gold
background that is representative of no identifiable earthly space. By placing these figures
in a spiritual world, the mosaics gave worshippers some access to that world as well. At the
same time, there are real-world political messages affirming the power of the rulers in
these mosaics. In this sense, art of the Byzantine Empire continued some of the traditions
of Roman art.
 Generally speaking, Byzantine art differs from the art of the
Romans in that it is interested in depicting that which we cannot
see—the intangible world of Heaven and the spiritual. Thus, the
Greco-Roman interest in depth and naturalism is replaced by an
interest in flatness and mystery.
MIDDLE BYZANTINE (C. 850–1204)

 The Middle Byzantine period followed a period of crisis for the arts
called the Iconoclastic Controversy, when the use of religious images
was hotly contested. Iconoclasts (those who worried that the use of
images was idolatrous), destroyed images, leaving few surviving
images from the Early Byzantine period. Fortunately for art history,
those in favor of images won the fight and hundreds of years of
Byzantine artistic production followed.
 The stylistic and thematic interests of the Early Byzantine period
continued during the Middle Byzantine period, with a focus on building
churches and decorating their interiors. There were some significant
changes in the empire, however, that brought about some change in
the arts. First, the influence of the empire spread into the Slavic world
with the Russian adoption of Orthodox Christianity in the tenth century.
Byzantine art was therefore given new life in the Slavic lands.
 Architecture in the Middle Byzantine period overwhelmingly moved
toward the centralized cross-in-square plan for which Byzantine
architecture is best known.
 These churches were usually on a much smaller-scale than the
massive Hagia Sophia in Istanbul, but, like Hagia Sophia, the
roofline of these churches was always defined by a dome or
domes. This period also saw increased ornamentation on church
exteriors. A particularly good example of this is the tenth-century
Hosios Loukas Monastery in Greece (above).
 This was also a period of increased stability and wealth. As such, wealthy
patrons commissioned private luxury items, including carved ivories, such as
the celebrated Harbaville Tryptich (above and below), which was used as a
private devotional object. Like the sixth-century icon discussed above (Virgin
(Theotokos) and Child between Saints Theodore and George), it helped the
viewer gain access to the heavenly realm. Interestingly, the heritage of the
Greco-Roman world can be seen here, in the awareness of mass and space.
See for example the subtle breaking of the straight fall of drapery by the
right knee that projects forward in the two figures in the bottom register of
the Harbaville Triptych (left). This interest in representing the body with
some naturalism is reflective of a revived interest in the classical past during
this period. So, as much as it is tempting to describe all Byzantine art as
“ethereal” or “flattened,” it is more accurate to say that Byzantine art is
diverse. There were many political and religious interests as well as distinct
cultural forces that shaped the art of different periods and regions within the
Byzantine Empire.
LATE BYZANTINE (C. 1261– 1453)

 Between 1204 and 1261, the Byzantine Empire suffered another

crisis: the Latin Occupation. Crusaders from Western Europe
invaded and captured Constantinople in 1204, temporarily
toppling the empire in an attempt to bring the eastern empire
back into the fold of western Christendom. (By this point
Christianity had divided into two distinct camps: eastern
[Orthodox] Christianity in the Byzantine Empire and western
[Latin] Christianity in the European west.)
 By 1261 the Byzantine Empire was free of its western occupiers
and stood as an independent empire once again, albeit markedly
weakened. The breadth of the empire had shrunk, and so had its
power. Nevertheless Byzantium survived until the Ottomans took
Constantinople in 1453. In spite of this period of diminished wealth
and stability, the arts continued to flourish in the Late Byzantine
period, much as it had before.
 Although Constantinople fell to the Turks in 1453—bringing about the end of
the Byzantine Empire—Byzantine art and culture continued to live on in its
far-reaching outposts, as well as in Greece, Italy, and the Ottoman Empire,
where it had flourished for so long. The Russian Empire, which was first
starting to emerge around the time Constantinople fell, carried on as the heir
of Byzantium, with churches and icons created in a distinct “Russo-Byzantine”
style(left). Similarly, in Italy, when the Renaissance was first emerging, it
borrowed heavily from the traditions of Byzantium. Cimabue’s Madonna
Enthroned of 1280–1290 is one of the earliest examples of the Renaissance
interest in space and depth in panel painting. But the painting relies on
Byzantine conventions and is altogether indebted to the arts of Byzantium.
 So, while we can talk of the end of the Byzantine Empire in 1453, it is much
more difficult to draw geographic or temporal boundaries around the empire,
for it spread out to neighboring regions and persisted in artistic traditions
long after its own demise.
JUSTINIAN MOSAIC, SAN VITALE

 One of the most famous images of political authority from the Middle Ages is the mosaic of the Emperor Justinian and his court in
the sanctuary of the church of San Vitale in Ravenna, Italy. This image is an integral part of a much larger mosaic program in the
chancel (the space around the altar).
 A major theme of this mosaic program is the authority of the emperor in the Christian plan of history.
 The mosaic program can also be seen to give visual testament to the two major ambitions of Justinian's reign: as heir to the
tradition of Roman Emperors, Justinian sought to restore the territorial boundaries of the Empire. As the Christian Emperor, he saw
himself as the defender of the faith. As such it was his duty to establish religious uniformity or Orthodoxy throughout the Empire.
 Who's Who in the Mosaic and What They Carry
 In the chancel mosaic Justinian is posed frontally in the center. He is haloed and wears a crown and a purple imperial robe. He is
flanked by members of the clergy on his left with the most prominent figure the Bishop Maximianus of Ravenna being labelled
with an inscription. To Justinian's right appear members of the imperial administration identified by the purple stripe, and at the
very far left side of the mosaic appears a group of soldiers.
 This mosaic thus establishes the central position of the Emperor between the power of the church and the power of the imperial
administration and military.Like the Roman Emperors of the past, Justinian has religious, administrative, and military authority.
 The clergy and Justinian carry in sequence from right to left a censer, the gospel book, the cross, and the bowl for the bread of the
Eucharist. This identifies the mosaic as the so-called Little Entrance which marks the beginning of the Byzantine liturgy of the
Eucharist.
 Justinian's gesture of carrying the bowl with the bread of the Eucharist can be seen as an act of homage to the True King who
appears in the adjacent apse mosaic (image left).
 Christ, dressed in imperial purple and seated on an orb signifying universal dominion, offers the crown of martyrdom to St. Vitale,
but the same gesture can be seen as offering the crown to Justinian in the mosaic below. Justinian is thus Christ's vice-regent on
earth, and his army is actually the army of Christ as signified by the Chi-Rho on the shield.
 Who's in Front?

 Closer examination of the Justinian mosaic reveals an ambiguity in

the positioning of the figures of Justinian and the Bishop
Maximianus. Overlapping suggests that Justinian is the closest
figure to the viewer, but when the positioning of the figures on the
picture plane is considered, it is evident that Maximianus's feet are
lower on the picture plane which suggests that he is closer to the
viewer. This can perhaps be seen as an indication of the tension
between the authority of the Emperor and the church.